Deep-learning based reconstruction of the shower maximum X max using the water-Cherenkov detectors of the Pierre Auger Observatory
Year: 2021
Type: article
Abstract: The atmospheric depth of the air shower maximum X max is an observable commonly used for the determination of the nuclear mass composition of ultra-high energy cosmic rays. Direct measurements of X max are performed using observations of the longitudinal shower development with fluorescence telescopes. At the same time, several methods have been proposed for an indirect estimation of X max from the characteristics of the shower particles registered with surface detector arrays. In this paper, we present a deep neural network (DNN) for the estimation of X max. The reconstruction relies on the signals induced by shower particles in the ground based water-Cherenkov detectors of the Pierre Auger Observatory. The network architecture features recurrent long short-term memory layers to process the temporal structure of signals and hexagonal convolutions to exploit the symmetry of the surface detector array. We evaluate the performance of the network using air showers simulated with three different hadronic interaction models. Thereafter, we account for long-term detector effects and calibrate the reconstructed X max using fluorescence measurements. Finally, we show that the event-by-event resolution in the reconstruction of the shower maximum improves with increasing shower energy and reaches less than 25 g/cm2 at energies above 2 × 1019 eV.
Source: Journal of Instrumentation
Authors: A. Aab, P. Abreu, M. Aglietta, J.M. Albury, I. Allekotte, A. Almela, J. Alvarez-Muñiz, R. Alves Batista, G.A. Anastasi, L. Anchordoqui, B. Andrada, S. Andringa, C. Aramo, P.R. Araújo Ferreira, J.C. Arteaga Velázquez, H. Asorey, P. Assis, G. Avila, A.M. Badescu, A. Bakalova, A. Balaceanu, F. Barbato, R.J. Barreira Luz, K.H. Becker, J.A. Bellido, C. Berat, M.E. Bertaina, X. Bertou, P.L. Biermann, T. Bister, J. Biteau, J. Blazek, C. Bleve, M. Boháčová, D. Boncioli, C. Bonifazi, L. Bonneau Arbeletche, N. Borodai, A.M. Botti, J. Brack, T. Bretz, P.G. Brichetto Orchera, F.L. Briechle, P. Buchholz, A. Bueno, S. Buitink, M. Buscemi, K.S. Caballero-Mora, L. Caccianiga, F. Canfora, I. Caracas, J.M. Carceller, R. Caruso, A. Castellina, F. Catalani, G. Cataldi, L. Cazon, M. Cerda, J.A. Chinellato, K. Choi, J. Chudoba, L. Chytka, R.W. Clay, A.C. Cobos Cerutti, R. Colalillo, A. Coleman, M.R. Coluccia, R. Conceição, A. Condorelli, G. Consolati, F. Contreras, F. Convenga, D. Correia dos Santos, C.E. Covault, S. Dasso, K. Daumiller, B.R. Dawson, J.A. Day, R.M. de Almeida, J. de Jesús, S.J. de Jong, G. De Mauro, J.R.T. de Mello Neto, I. De Mitri, J. de Oliveira, D. de Oliveira Franco, F. de Palma, V. de Souza, E. De Vito, M. del Río, O. Deligny, A. Di Matteo, C. Dobrigkeit, J.C. D'Olivo, R.C. dos Anjos, M.T. Dova, J. Ebr, R. Engel, I. Epicoco, M. Erdmann, C.O. Escobar, A. Etchegoyen, H. Falcke, J. Farmer, G. Farrar, A.C. Fauth, N. Fazzini, F. Feldbusch, F. Fenu, B. Fick, J.M. Figueira, A. Filipčič, T. Fodran, M.M. Freire, T. Fujii, A. Fuster, C. Galea, C. Galelli, B. García, A.L. Garcia Vegas, H. Gemmeke, F. Gesualdi, A. Gherghel-Lascu, P.L. Ghia, U. Giaccari, M. Giammarchi, M. Giller, J. Glombitza, F. Gobbi, F. Gollan, G. Golup, M. Gómez Berisso, P.F. Gómez Vitale, J.P. Gongora, J.M. González, N. González, I. Goos, D. Góra, A. Gorgi, M. Gottowik, T.D. Grubb, F. Guarino, G.P. Guedes, E. Guido, S. Hahn, P. Hamal, M.R. Hampel, P. Hansen, D. Harari, V.M. Harvey, A. Haungs, T. Hebbeker, D. Heck, G.C. Hill, C. Hojvat, J.R. Hörandel, P. Horvath, M. Hrabovský, T. Huege, J. Hulsman, A. Insolia, P.G. Isar, P. Janecek, J.A. Johnsen, J. Jurysek, A. Kääpä, K.H. Kampert, B. Keilhauer, J. Kemp, H.O. Klages, M. Kleifges, J. Kleinfeller, M. Köpke, N. Kunka, B.L. Lago, R.G. Lang, N. Langner, M.A. Leigui de Oliveira, V. Lenok, A. Letessier-Selvon, I. Lhenry-Yvon, D. Lo Presti, L. Lopes, R. López, L. Lu, Q. Luce, A. Lucero, J.P. Lundquist, A. Machado Payeras, G. Mancarella, D. Mandat, B.C. Manning, J. Manshanden, P. Mantsch, S. Marafico, A.G. Mariazzi, I.C. Mariş, G. Marsella, D. Martello, H. Martinez, O. Martínez Bravo, M. Mastrodicasa, H.J. Mathes, J. Matthews, G. Matthiae, E. Mayotte, P.O. Mazur, G. Medina-Tanco, D. Melo, A. Menshikov, K.-D. Merenda, S. Michal, M.I. Micheletti, L. Miramonti, S. Mollerach, F. Montanet, C. Morello, M. Mostafá, A.L. Müller, M.A. Muller, K. Mulrey, R. Mussa, M. Muzio, W.M. Namasaka, A. Nasr-Esfahani, L. Nellen, M. Niculescu-Oglinzanu, M. Niechciol, D. Nitz, D. Nosek, V. Novotny, L. Nožka, A. Nucita, L.A. Núñez, M. Palatka, J. Pallotta, P. Papenbreer, G. Parente, A. Parra, M. Pech, F. Pedreira, J. Pȩkala, R. Pelayo, J. Peña-Rodriguez, E.E. Pereira Martins, J. Perez Armand, C. Pérez Bertolli, M. Perlin, L. Perrone, S. Petrera, T. Pierog, M. Pimenta, V. Pirronello, M. Platino, B. Pont, M. Pothast, P. Privitera, M. Prouza, A. Puyleart, S. Querchfeld, J. Rautenberg, D. Ravignani, M. Reininghaus, J. Ridky, F. Riehn, M. Risse, V. Rizi, W. Rodrigues de Carvalho, J. Rodriguez Rojo, M.J. Roncoroni, M. Roth, E. Roulet, A.C. Rovero, P. Ruehl, S.J. Saffi, A. Saftoiu, F. Salamida, H. Salazar, G. Salina, J.D. Sanabria Gomez, F. Sánchez, E.M. Santos, E. Santos, F. Sarazin, R. Sarmento, C. Sarmiento-Cano, R. Sato, P. Savina, C.M. Schäfer, V. Scherini, H. Schieler, M. Schimassek, M. Schimp, F. Schlüter, D. Schmidt, O. Scholten, P. Schovánek, F.G. Schröder, S. Schröder, J. Schulte, S.J. Sciutto, M. Scornavacche, A. Segreto, S. Sehgal, R.C. Shellard, G. Sigl, G. Silli, O. Sima, R. Šmída, P. Sommers, J.F. Soriano, J. Souchard, R. Squartini, M. Stadelmaier, D. Stanca, S. Stanič, J. Stasielak, P. Stassi, A. Streich, M. Suárez-Durán, T. Sudholz, T. Suomijärvi, A.D. Supanitsky, J. Šupík, Z. Szadkowski, A. Taboada, A. Tapia, C. Taricco, C. Timmermans, O. Tkachenko, P. Tobiska, C.J. Todero Peixoto, B. Tomé, A. Travaini, P. Travnicek, C. Trimarelli, M. Trini, M. Tueros, R. Ulrich, M. Unger, L. Vaclavek, M. Vacula, J.F. Valdés Galicia, L. Valore, E. Varela, V. Varma K.C., A. Vásquez-Ramírez, D. Veberič, C. Ventura, I.D. Vergara Quispe, V. Verzi, J. Vicha, J. Vink, S. Vorobiov, H. Wahlberg, C. Watanabe, A.A. Watson, M. Weber, A. Weindl, L. Wiencke, H. Wilczyński, T. Winchen, M. Wirtz, D. Wittkowski, B. Wundheiler, A. Yushkov, O. Zapparrata, E. Zas, D. Zavrtanik, M. Zavrtanik, L. Zehrer, A. Zepeda
Institutions: Radboud University Nijmegen, University of Lisbon, LIP - Laboratory of Instrumentation and Experimental Particle Physics, Instituto Superior Técnico, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Torino, Osservatorio Astrofisico di Torino, National Institute for Astrophysics, The University of Adelaide, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Balseiro Institute, Bariloche Atomic Centre, National Technological University, National University of General San Martín, Instituto de Tecnologías en Detección y Astropartículas, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, University of Turin, Lehman College, City University of New York, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Napoli, RWTH Aachen University, Universidad Michoacana de San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Pierre Auger Observatory, Comisión Nacional de Energía Atómica, Universitatea Națională de Știință și Tehnologie Politehnica București, FZU - Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Horia Hulubei National Institute for R and D in Physics and Nuclear Engineering, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, Gran Sasso Science Institute, University of Wuppertal, Universidad Nacional de San Agustin de Arequipa, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules, Université Grenoble Alpes, Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy, Université Paris-Saclay, Laboratoire de Physique des 2 Infinis Irène Joliot-Curie, University of L'Aquila, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Universidade de São Paulo, Institute of Nuclear Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Colorado State University, University of Siegen, Universidad de Granada, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Catania, Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas, University of Milan, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Milano, National Institute for Subatomic Physics, University of Catania, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Sezione di Lecce, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), Université Libre de Bruxelles, Palacký University Olomouc, University of Naples Federico II, University of Delaware, Politecnico di Milano, University of Salento, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Case Western Reserve University, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Institute of Astronomy and Space Physics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Valongo Observatory, Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Instituto de Física La Plata, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, Netherlands Institute for Radio Astronomy, University of Chicago, New York University, Michigan Technological University, University of Nova Gorica, Jožef Stefan Institute, National University of Rosario, Institute of Physics Rosario, Kyoto University, University of Łódź, Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Institute of Space Science - INFLPR Subsidiary, Colorado School of Mines, Federal Center for Technological Education Celso Suckow da Fonseca, Universidade Federal do ABC, Université Paris Cité, Sorbonne Université, Laboratoire de Physique Nucléaire et de Hautes Énergies, Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Universität Hamburg, University of Palermo, Louisiana State University, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Roma Tor Vergata, Pennsylvania State University, Charles University, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Institute of Scientific and Technical Research for Defense, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, University of Groningen, Istituto di Astrofisica Spaziale e Fisica cosmica di Palermo, Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas, University of Bucharest, Universidad de Medellín, University of Amsterdam, University of Leeds, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional
Language: English
Subfield: Nuclear and High Energy Physics
Field: Physics and Astronomy
Domain: Physical Sciences
Open Access status: hybrid
Estimated APC paid: $2,820
Funders: National Science Foundation, U.S. Department of Energy, Grainger Foundation, Strong, Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Agence Nationale de la Recherche, Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo, Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek, Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico, Javna Agencija za Raziskovalno Dejavnost RS, Fundação Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos, Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ministerio de Asuntos Económicos y Transformación Digital, Gobierno de España, Xunta de Galicia, Junta de Andalucía, Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia, Inovações e Comunicações, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare, Helmholtz Alliance for Astroparticle Physics, Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, Agencia Nacional de Promoción Científica y Tecnológica, Dirección General de Asuntos del Personal Académico, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules
Awards: Pierre Auger Project, G1151900320, G1496055848, G1578237752, G184749188, G195474297, G222768804, G2366462802, Pierre Auger Observatory, G2647246237, G2717377659, Remote sensing of atmospheric properties, G289601025, G295657101, G3175263447, G3286760496, G3579873031, G3700295401, Study of cosmic rays of highest energies with the Pierre Auger Observatory, The Infrastructure Program of the University of Nova Gorica, Race in the Histories of Science and Medicine: A Review Essay and a Research Agenda, G4276370106, G4305081872, G4344075577, G4820567559, G4866930200, G4892421264, Multimessenger astrophysics, G5100556825, G5145058842, G5214714610, G5615659713, G5616713406, G5840225288, G585908603, G6010476436, G6209881064, Sorbonne Universités à Paris pour l'Enseignement et la Recherche, STUDIES OF PARTICLE ASTROPHYSICS AT THE COSMIC FRONTIER, G7240651115, G7376787254, G744657279, G7512206404, G7517989378, STUDIES OF HIGH ENERGY PARTICLE ASTROPHYSICS, STUDIES OF HIGH ENERGY PARTICLE ASTROPHYSICS, G7720562802, G774704176, Identifikacija izvorov kozmičnih žarkov med aktivnimi galaksijami s curki (Slovene), G8146748976, Study of Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays with the Pierre Auger Observatory upgrade AugerPrime, G86560745, G969889393
OpenAlex ID: W3120516871