RETRACTED: Normative Data for the D-KEFS Tower Test in Greek Adult Population Between 20 and 85 Years Old

Year: 2025

Type: article

Abstract: Background: The Delis–Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) Tower Test (TT) is a widely used neuropsychological tool that assesses complex executive functions, including planning, cognitive flexibility, inhibition, switching, and impulsivity—key abilities often impaired in individuals with frontal dysfunction. Aims: There is currently no normative data for the D-KEFS TT in the Greek population. Consequently, it cannot be effectively used to detect executive dysfunction in neurological and psychiatric populations or for research purposes. Methods: The study sample included 249 healthy adults (28.9% male, 71.1% female) aged 20 to 85 years (M = 46.53, SD = 17.41), with educational levels ranging from secondary school graduates to master’s degree holders. Pearson correlation was used to examine the relationship between age and D-KEFS TT performance, while chi-square test assessed the effects of education and gender. Normative data were then derived from raw scores and converted into percentiles. Results: Norms were established for the following D-KEFS TT variables: Total Achievement Score, Total Rule Violations, Move Accuracy Ratio, Mean First Move Time, and Time-per-Move Ratio. Age was the strongest predictor of performance, and normative data were stratified accordingly for the Greek adult population. Conclusions: This study introduces the D-KEFS TT as a neuropsychological assessment tool for Greek adults across different age groups to evaluate complex executive functions throughout the lifespan. Unlike other D-KEFS tests, the TT had not previously been adapted for the Greek population. This study is the first to provide normative data, supporting its use in clinical practice and research.

Source: Brain Sciences

DOI: 10.3390/brainsci15030278

Authors: Marianna Tsatali, Despina Eleftheriadou, Nikoleta Palla, Magda Tsolaki, Despina Moraitou

Institutions: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greek Association of Alzheimer's Disease and Related Disorders, University of Western Macedonia

Language: English

Topic: Historical and Modern Theater Studies

Subfield: Clinical Psychology

Field: Psychology

Domain: Social Sciences

SDG: Good health and well-being

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $2,654