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How is global commerce affecting the gender composition of employment? A firm-level analysis of the effects of exposure to gender norms via trade and FDI

Year: 2025

Type: article

Abstract: Global firms have a higher share of female employees than domestic non-exporters. To explain this fact, this paper tests whether international trade and FDI are channels through which norms regarding gender (in)equality are transmitted from customers and investors to firms. We employ pooled cross-sectional data from 2007–2016 for around 28,000 firms in 104 different countries. We compare global versus non-global firms in the same market to study the influence of firms’ exposure to gender norms in commercial partner countries. The results show a race to the top for low- and mid-level jobs and the opposite for top managerial positions.

Source: Labour Economics

DOI: 10.1016/j.labeco.2025.102696

Authors: Pia Heckl, Carolina Lennon, Alyssa Schneebaum

Institutions: Ifo Institute for Economic Research, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Vienna University of Economics and Business

Language: English

Topic: Global trade and economics

Subfield: General Economics, Econometrics and Finance

Field: Economics, Econometrics and Finance

Domain: Social Sciences

SDGs: Decent work and economic growth, Gender equality, Reduced inequalities

Open Access status: hybrid

Estimated APC paid: $3,240