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Associations between green space, and blue space and mental health outcomes in regional Australia: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses

Year: 2025
Type: article
Study design: Observational Study
Abstract: OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study is to examine the relationships between green, blue, and green-blue space (GBS) with depression or anxiety in regional areas of Australia. METHODS: Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses were conducted using data from Waves 17 and 21 of the HILDA Survey of Australian adults living in regional areas. Self-reported diagnosis of depression or anxiety was assessed at baseline (Wave 17) and follow-up (wave 21). Green space and GBS were quantified as land cover, and blue space as the presence of inland water in residential areas. Generalised estimating equation models assessed association of green space, blue and GBS with prevalent and incident depression or anxiety. RESULTS: Among, 5212 participants (mean age 49.12 ± 18.73) years; 53 % female) at baseline, 931 (17.86 %) reported depression or anxiety. The 4-year cumulative incidence of depression or anxiety was 8.03 %. No associations were observed between green space, blue space, or GBS and prevalent depression or anxiety. At follow-up, GBS coverage of ≥41 % was associated with a 37 % lower risk of incident depression or anxiety (OR = 0.63, 95 % CI: 0.42, 0.98). Gender-stratified analyses, blue space was protective for females at baseline (OR = 0.80, 95 % CI: 0.65, 0.98), while green space (OR = 0.35, 95 % CI: 0.15, 0.82) and GBS (OR = 0.32, 95 % CI: 0.14, 0.74) were proactive for males at follow-up. CONCLUSION: GBS may reduce the risk of depression or anxiety in regional Australia adults. Blue space may reduce symptoms of depression or anxiety in females, while green space and GBS benefits males over time.
DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2025.119685
Language: English
Open Access status: hybrid
Estimated APC paid: $3,790
OpenAlex ID: W4411196611
FWCI: 3.559
Cites: 70
Cited by: 9
Related to: 10