Evolution of powder-entrapped pores in Ti–6Al–4V fabricated with powder bed fusion-laser beam process
Year: 2025
Type: article
Abstract: X-ray micro computed tomography (X- μ CT) of bulk powder bed fusion - laser beam (PBF-LB) Ti-6Al-4V samples shows that, within the optimal process window – where lack-of-fusion and keyhole porosity are minimized – higher laser power reduces the number density of powder-entrapped pores when hatch spacing, layer thickness, and laser spot size remain fixed. To gain insight into this observation, the X- μ CT measurements of powder-entrapped pores are combined with a computational model to simulate pore trajectories in the PBF-LB melt pool. More than 100,000 independent pore trajectories are simulated at two different combinations of laser power and scanning velocity, where the forces acting on the pores are quantified using melt pool temperatures, pressures, and fluid flow velocities from multi-physics simulations. The model is then used to predict the pore size distributions in bulk samples fabricated within the optimal process window at 150 W, 700 mm/s and 370 W, 1200 mm/s. At both laser power settings, the total number density of pores predicted by the model is within one order of magnitude of the experimental values. The model suggests that the differences in the pore size distributions measured with X- μ CT are caused by differences in melt pool overlap (i.e., remelting). Using the model, a process map is constructed to predict porosity as a function of hatch spacing and layer thickness, suggesting that the number density of powder-entrapped pores can vary by two orders of magnitude within the optimal process window. This result suggests that the elimination of powder-entrapped pores poses an obstacle to increasing build rates by increasing the hatch spacing and layer thickness. While previous investigations of pore evolution during PBF-LB focused on experimental approaches, this work will enable the development of model-driven processing strategies to promote pore elimination.
Source: Additive manufacturing
Institutions: Carnegie Mellon University, Northwestern University
Language: English
Subfield: Mechanical Engineering
Field: Engineering
Domain: Physical Sciences
Open Access status: hybrid
Estimated APC paid: $4,430
OpenAlex ID: W4411403153