A Cross-Disciplinary Review of Rare Earth Elements: Deposit Types, Mineralogy, Machine Learning, Environmental Impact, and Recycling
Year: 2025
Type: article
Abstract: Rare-earth elements (REEs), including lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium, are important for advanced technologies such as renewable energy systems, electronics, medical diagnostics, and precision agriculture. Despite their relative crustal abundance, REE extraction is impeded by complex geochemical behavior, dispersed distribution, and environmental challenges. This review presents a comprehensive overview of REE geochemistry, mineralogy, and major deposit types including carbonatites, alkaline igneous rocks, laterites, placer deposits, coal byproducts, and marine sediments. It also highlights the global distribution and economic potential of key REE projects. The integration of machine learning has further enhanced exploration by enabling deposit classification and geochemical modeling, especially in data-limited regions. Environmental and health challenges associated with REE mining, processing, and electronic waste (e-waste) recycling are studied, along with the expanding use of REEs in agriculture and medicine. Some recycling efforts offer promise for supply diversification, but significant technological and economic barriers remain. Ensuring a secure and sustainable REE supply will require integrated approaches combining advanced analytics, machine learning, responsible extraction, and coordinated policy efforts. The present review offers a general overview that can be useful for informing future studies and resource-related discussions.
Source: Minerals
DOI: 10.3390/min15070720
Institution: Mississippi State University
Language: English
Subfield: Geochemistry and Petrology
Field: Earth and Planetary Sciences
Domain: Physical Sciences
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $2,896
OpenAlex ID: W4412199650