Work

Developmental cascades linking executive functions with internalizing and externalizing problems in early childhood through early adolescence

Year: 2025

Type: article

Abstract: BACKGROUND: Difficulties in executive functions (EFs) and internalizing and externalizing problems are prospectively related. However, it remains unclear whether the bidirectional relations between specific EF components and internalizing and externalizing problems at the within-person level vary across developmental stages in childhood and early adolescence. METHODS: This study utilized data from seven waves of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011 (ECLS-K: 2011), following a nationally representative sample of 15,055 children (mean age at baseline = 5.63 years, SD = 0.37; age range = 4.02-7.83) from kindergarten through fifth grade. Internalizing and externalizing problems and inhibitory control were assessed using teacher-reported measures, while working memory and cognitive flexibility were evaluated using standardized cognitive tasks. Data were analyzed using a random intercept cross-lagged panel model, adjusting for the complex sampling design. RESULTS: Working memory negatively predicted internalizing problems from kindergarten to first grade, with no significant link to externalizing problems. Cognitive flexibility showed limited effects, with only spring kindergarten externalizing problems predicting lower cognitive flexibility in first grade. Inhibitory control negatively predicted internalizing problems in early childhood, while internalizing problems positively predicted inhibitory control during the kindergarten-to-first-grade transition. Externalizing problems consistently reduced inhibitory control over time. Notably, inhibitory control negatively predicted externalizing problems until third grade but positively predicted them from third to fourth grade. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that while certain EFs can protect against internalizing and externalizing problems in early childhood, these symptoms may also influence EF development, with these interactions evolving as children transition into adolescence.

Source: Psychological Medicine

DOI: 10.1017/s0033291725100810