Year: 2025
Type: article
Abstract: In the early days of August 1914, millions of young men across Europe volunteered for or were conscripted into their nation’s armed forces. Fifty years of rising nationalism bore fruit in the form of the largest military mobilization in human history. At the same time, and in the same place, a very different kind of mobilization also took place. Shocked and worried by the outbreak of hostilities, tens of thousands of US nationals living, working, and vacationing overseas sought a return to the United States as the first age of globalization came to a sudden end.1 The journey home to the United States would not be as easy as the outward voyage. Even before the introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare in early 1915, the fracturing of global financial and transportation systems made it immensely difficult to secure and pay for transit. The US federal government worked with a series of volunteer organizations in Europe to unblock this logjam. A combination of federal and privately-owned gold was shipped across the Atlantic on armored naval cruisers to enable the return passage of US nationals on civilian ocean liners. Wealthy travelers accustomed to the fineries of first class grumbled at being crammed into steerage but gradually accepted the severity of the situation. Americans fled neutral and belligerent countries alike. By the end of September over 100,000 people had returned to the United States. Matched only by an equivalent operation in 1939 and a diffuse but similar-sized effort undertaken during the beginnings of the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, this effort ranks among the largest state-assisted evacuations in the history of the United States.2 The operation was hailed as a success and, in helping to launch the reputation of one of its chief private partners, Herbert Hoover, it laid the foundation for more far-reaching public-private humanitarian efforts during World War I and beyond. The evacuation was also an attempt to preserve the neutrality of the United States. This article situates the extraction of US nationals from both Europe and further afield within a wider effort to put US President Woodrow Wilson’s call for citizens to act “impartial in thought as well as action” into practice in the first months of the war.3 Politicians generally situated the mission as a response to the demands of stranded Americans. However, as historian Branden Little has argued, the operation was understood at the time as being “closely linked to solidifying the neutrality of the United States.”4 The absence of US nationals from warzones, it was hoped, would remove the risk of actions that might jeopardize the nation’s detachment from the conflict. Messages from the State Department to consular staff on its desire for all Americans to leave Europe was indicative of a prevailing understanding that the wellbeing of overseas nationals was a central component of US foreign policy. A reference in the US Congress to the belief that the removal of citizens from belligerent countries would minimize the United States and the the the I was an of the that had military the to the wellbeing and of US citizens had to the United in in and the of the for the removal of US this to a of that from the of US neutrality to its and The operation also laid the of the overseas of US citizens during the Politicians and had the and overseas citizens from the federal In of overseas citizens were as people to the United States was or to as of the United with the of to the was more as and people of However, the that in also an of Americans into as and citizens had overseas but sought in the United States. The United States had sought to from its to the but in Europe in were in of a The of to or military a more also more for their with the United States sought to the demands of neutrality with the of its global The was an effort that practice in of US The of the evacuation from Europe also with efforts to US citizens in both the and was to US in the US federal government and citizens with the of a to the prevailing on the of during World War The of the United States on the of this on and the in humanitarian the of a US in global as the government sought to the United States the in of and The to at the end of the would over the This with the of to as the and of the the War one by globalization and unrestricted and by and in as a of with the of the has Americans were in that This an attempt to the outbreak of in the United States to the and of This article with a of US in Europe during the of on to the of the the United was a from to a and citizens of US nationals from across the In and the by the of foreign that during this the to the of this from US State Department and to the global and within this the of the cruisers to overseas citizens of the United first to the humanitarian efforts to foreign nationals and and to were by a of of the and to were but the United States a military to the of the the US government took a financial and in it for US of actions were by a desire to preserve US was by and a that on private and a in was to US nationals in and to for in the In the of a for from on of the in the of by during the age of as a that in a of to were in in or in the to in to the humanitarian of and during as had before and would World War In was as a as a as it would to be was in the and from the United States to with and with the of However, the of of US and in the this would also the United response to the only a of the US nationals across the in the early years of the but their and with staff had to act as of the United States were to as an in and the and that had in and for both an and by would over the The US nationals in Europe and their home had not an easy the and were to from in the United that overseas would their the of Americans in had with the of a that Americans the of their and of for was as However, had in by Even the of the of people that had the time of the War in were by to the and a that the of an among the US in had by might over their in the of the United States and their of but the of overseas The same not be of all overseas from the United States in from to from to the US federal were in the United States for time, had returned to their of The of return but this was a and across and was home to by the The of return had not US before the United but had people were as a by worried were or not to the United States. The of the for the of as a response to citizens had for years to years returned to in their of foreign of their and to a foreign were all to of US However, in and consular were to to for as as had to return to the United States for return only to the of for a US or sought to the government a of US from that of the The of the and US a that was on August the United States the of neutrality to a to act Wilson’s actions in August the of neutrality and it as a as well as only would the United States to the of but its would also enable it to act as a in a of global Wilson’s of in Europe and the government on US to the in by the of this This was a President the first from the United States to the only in in the for US on the in an attempt to on and US neutrality was in the first months of the as both an of and a of also Even before the of US the the of US in of and with to for were to in foreign in the United of the Wilson’s the in to and from US to pay for their This the United States to on the gold and it from the for were of to across the The had the of US into the were in the for for their from War of an and and to return to the United States by early also made that return The US nationals in Europe to to the for but this difficult as for Even with in and and all Americans to their consular for but had to the situation. of US nationals the at the of or The to a of to a that to a The US at of was that staff had to in it would passage for A of had stranded in to their to the of with of the of the of their government and further This to be for the US as well as on the for stranded Americans. In a as citizens of a neutral would to from foreign The US to US citizens in to a the US to their with a that their was the of the United States it was be this it was that US would be by the of and had into the of neutral and their a for from the but it was an and only the of Wilson’s it was the government had to its citizens from foreign The and to the State in the of the that private citizens of neutral in a belligerent be to the of and the of to the same as of the on in the and War to However, that a from the to by early to remove from the belligerent for that removal might be of State by August 1914, that the government was that all Americans return the government was to its citizens to leave This of was in to the of the of foreign that the State Department had to over the The in Europe made the to central of In the of State and had that the State Department only a of to its citizens in that it was only to citizens of the of the government of the to its of Even a had to this was in the first of August an to the in Europe would of a on a was an for the kind of that US nationals from In the of 1914, the State Department had an to citizens from of of took a different in the form of the of but the of a to the US people on foreign as has as the for military the US President Congress for to on in and to by US citizens in before the of the at had the same as to a that of or in a in the form of or The United States had undertaken more of across the The early of had to the of but as historian has to US in and the and had in in to military The to US citizens and an for The in Europe in was different from was to the US in a foreign conflict. the for Americans in was well attempt to across the of the or the United of in the to or the of the of military to foreign nationals were undertaken by The State Department was to the of that had to the of in the to in that countries the United and had in their of would be to that their had a of The of this by US citizens the that had to At Wilson’s Congress a on August the of the and transportation of citizens in and for would be across the Atlantic on naval the of the US Department of would be to in by a United States by on of the of federal for the for the government or private citizens to for the Atlantic were it was that US citizens would return to the United States on all were to be its had returned to the United States. were to be of the and would also the and of military and the US to the United from the for the to at armored the and on August with in gold from the of the of This both an of the of for its citizens the United and also an that neutrality was on the and of overseas The in but took the to its The of Americans in countries in a on US and to the and of the In with the of the that in from the of that this and of the in the a reference to the of to US an the of US to of an and Congress the to be on the US for the of its and of in a to on the the a would the days to the In the Americans in the United to the and August and were by the from a that was at an at to the of the of the of In their place, the was to the was to of and by the of the was as a for a of were in was one of the first US to the Atlantic and to the to their and the of were it and with US travelers the of a and at to return home of with and at with was from However, US citizens also and that would people to passage home on was to The of the in was in the and by Herbert Hoover, with from a of the of on among of US nationals to staff the and on Americans the were into were the to the would a from a in the United and the The of the government ocean the from military on August However, and financial The in on August by to the of federal to the mission The gold from was in to with and were with Americans across the from and to on the in neutral US nationals to a the for The returned to the United States at the end of August with a of US the of an in September men were to act as an armed for the US in the operation was the of the mission on the of and that had over the of as a for the evacuation effort as it at a from the private stranded or a of as it to secure passage across the This kind of was a from for in the of a but it was all the Hoover, the first on had among the of to a of the of to and before to wider efforts with the War and were a at the to from The into this of its on the mission that were to be from class of people to the of The by the and their on the by the in and was in as the to the success of the on same in the of as on the for in from an in as on the of This also In an with the an early with men had as at the and were as to the of were on a the only to a steerage to the United States to secure in one of the to Americans on their return of undertaken by with citizens to return to the United States during as the not would The at the in a with a sought to a to secure passage home but was was a US both of were to travelers to the of the in the United States. from foreign was a more The of or citizens being to in the military of a in or was a in the early of the and both the and their overseas a in the of conflict. to in by the that a series of the United States and in the that to home would be citizens of the United citizens the of the government as as on US was to their or into military the United States had not with or of the to for a had to before the to was in 1915, with that made for military the State Department the government it was as a to the US government of The same the State Department a was in the United States to that would be to within that had with the United States had not the of their the for belligerent had to as the of Wilson’s of to the of foreign to the of the and of US citizens into the and military were to the that had from a of were but into at the government had to citizens in a foreign Little that the The mission a in August and September the US government to its citizens and evacuation and a of the of or citizens was in and that over of were citizens and with that were to return from a by at the of a had in and sought a return to the United not the of the or but were The US in of the all of to return to the United States as as to the in from or the of their from military but that the to leave financial US citizens from being into the armed forces. The of US to on the had in their the in with the of citizens as an time in to understanding of a US In early that and travelers had in of to only a to US to to the United States as a of days a from in across the United States. In the on the of the had from the to and with over their the at The in from to of was a but the were not Americans and not be to government the State Department had to act on this In the a that overseas citizens from as as to return to the United the outbreak of the had to citizens had overseas for and, the only to return to the United States to or of military However, by this had to a At the outbreak of the the evacuation of its nationals had over the of was only this had that more were had it was for to to the United States. The of was a of both and the of an for and were to the of before the of for travelers to in their be In only a to act as a and for their in to be The US in that had during the first days of of US staff to that nationals had their US to and on of their of in and the United in the United States by but not in The of this to all Americans in Europe to in the of and had during the first age of In was to were from US that and in Europe were both to federal their as from the of their to was by the The United States not its nationals to leave but from and in with the to that in Europe to of neutrality by for that the in to as well as would In the United the the of but the of a the or of US By the end of over 100,000 people had returned to the United and the of the of War the operation a By a to and to had from and private in and would to their of the of the on the but the government not be of to return that the effort the United States to its nationals from Europe would to a wider the of of Americans were in returned to the United States in early on the but the and in the in to to Americans in of the with foreign nationals and of to be in the mission that had the and the United States as well as the early on the US had into during of in the and the had to US during the War in but an operation had in the had from and from in was of as that the government had in the the of had returned from the United States. In it sought to from foreign By the of the the State Department and consular had to the history of and had made the to foreign the to an in a humanitarian had to during the of in the in a of US citizens were The further in the of 1914, the more the the US and the wellbeing of its nationals In the government of foreign to the the the for The the and a in early A of stranded Americans of and at the of in of but US were to the had with naval The US in sought to the on US by the to a from from be at the as it within of the a further that might US the was to to The to foreign nationals and the of further with the was more In to that be to leave but that this not be to the further with the in from and from Americans in the United US were to in the with an to all foreign nationals to leave the with thousands of and were in of and to This the of the the first of 1915, as by one of the from the also and from into the only be to US but the of in to the of private to at in The and were by further the and their to this effort and to the United as a neutral nationals from to on the 1915, by the to of 1915, United States nationals from to on the 1915, by the to of 1915, United States The US cruisers in the the of foreign nationals and the the a had one of the of the of of The had with the United and and had both worked in for the Department of and had in was conscripted into the military in August 1914, was by the US at a of the that to of the the that would The of and the of US naval to at but the of US was to the of their In to the in the operation in the was by At one citizens of belligerent and of were from the that only citizens of neutral of the only be to had the as early of the of US and not with the of the State Department but was to not US military it to passage on the as a and with the in to In early to the was and a to the to had at a and for to on on of to as a US this was not to that in to would of to the to only citizens of neutral that not an on the of first and that might to for and for the and the that had to on the the neutrality of mission to in to a journey to was a at the of an with and passage on the to an to the made their to the United from to in at an of to and the at a the one by and The United States its but humanitarian within the the of this operation also US to the of global conflict. US nationals with for the of US neutrality to on leave in but the return to in August 1915, the a of a to the of the that US during their time in the not foreign policy. were of but US neutrality more In Europe had but the foreign on the of the United humanitarian the in Europe and the and a for further In early 1914, a of by the in that of the for Americans in be to Americans in by and that had into by their the of neutrality on August had to it from the of of the was with had the with in and to its on the This was as on and the naval took an into government and the wellbeing of had the in in their were on on only in the were and people and, to the to the United private US of were and to the this had A to the that a to might to the of in the United as the had to for the in the of to the with an the that had the to to and had on the for in but the of a of for to the to for a in the The of the to US citizens but a on by US from that be and was for the United States to from its had to the to for but the State Department to the of or military would only be of a to of or a of was not in a of were of neutral financial and had to US citizens the and By the of US citizens for the State Department the that had the in the The United States in but its actions a over the on its from the of the United States had its with by a private to its a and its into a of has that this as an of the United a different to the that had and The United States also a over the the and a of to its the government to a on the to it an that the of this In September 1915, of the an in the of of The had the government in the but situated their in a global at the of with government to be on and their the to and the from their was over to in or in the evacuation of its the United States worked to its A from at to the of the the in their for a US to the with an The United States to the from the to put the with the of foreign the in 1915, it months and the with on The a from the and a of The was in a at the of in of the before the to the of the government was in an attempt to an the United its and the in was an global also to the of US over of Europe in the the for US to a in the years the would be to in the the to the of US in The of the the countries the United States to of to the people or its citizens were in of the US for stranded in Europe at the of the in the humanitarian that had the mission in The United of neutrality in the first of World War I its citizens to or to a The State of citizens to leave countries in the with this and of neutrality policy. the actions of the also a US citizens overseas and the government that to travelers and citizens to into the armed of their of with for citizens for the US as a the for the mission the evacuation of thousands of from the This was an attempt to neutrality the absence of its citizens from warzones, an effort that was to to the the United States had over the by an to US the of US in the and in the first of World War I In the of the the of US was in with the of foreign and In the a operation was by to the of a foreign military in their was it the in early the United States a wider humanitarian in the it with the on it to preserve its neutral in the of US was of its humanitarian for and on the of US citizens from the of were but a military response was US and in the were were in by the that US The United States was to the same to its citizens in that it had in Europe and in the not with the of US to neutrality with of US and over and into the United of in and of the The the the in more an of the that would be the of and foreign and This would to a US but the was The was in a the of on August In the and more were were not from the at Herbert and for in the US in the but to across the The of US nationals the in the United States further the to but the that from to were on the in the first the to the of was the evacuation in the of The United to armed to its to the was a response to the on the United global also the in the of the first age of The United in World War I by the nation’s with the of the of the United States as a global was its to more
Source: Diplomatic History
DOI: 10.1093/dh/dhaf058
Author: Lewis Defrates
Language: English
Field: Social Sciences
Domain: Social Sciences
Open Access status: hybrid
Estimated APC paid: $3,737
Funder: Research Ireland
Award: G5225467633
OpenAlex ID: W4413953610