Work

Sea Nomads, Sultans, and Raiders: History and Ethnogenesis in the Sulu Archipelago, Philippines

Year: 2025

Type: article

Abstract: The Sulu Archipelago, nestled between Mindanao and Borneo, has been a melting pot of people and cultures for thousands of years. Major sociopolitical changes marked its history, attracting groups of people or forcing drastic dispersals. Today, the islands host various ethnolinguistic groups, including Sama-Badjaw and Tausug-speaking communities. We surveyed the literature from multiple disciplines—linguistics, anthropology, archaeology, history, and genetics—to shed light on past movements and the emergence of ethnicities in the region. Three factors drive ethnogenesis in the Sulu Archipelago: niche or economic specialization, social hierarchies, and assimilation. Economic specialization initially fostered differentiation among groups inhabiting reef and island ecosystems. The most extreme adaptive strategy was boat-nomadism, whose origin was tied to the evolving sociopolitical order. With the rise of the Sultanate of Sulu, differences in rank and religion were articulated along ethnic lines. The Tausug assumed formal dominance over the surrounding populace, whereas the Sama Dilaut were relegated to society’s periphery. The mid-eighteenth century saw the integration of Sulu within the global trading network which created a labor-driven economy focused on procuring local products. During this period, the Sama Bangingi emerged as specialized maritime raiders who used captive peoples from parts of the Philippines and Southeast Asia. Following the end of foreign imperial control, the peoples of Sulu found themselves subsumed within the modern Philippine state. Social change continues as the Sama Dilaut integrate into the broader Sama milieu, and the rest of the Sulu Archipelago into Filipino society.

Source: Journal of Maritime Archaeology

DOI: 10.1007/s11457-025-09481-3