“Who gets to belong?” Navigating appearance-based discrimination and transgender access to urban toilets in India
Year: 2025
Type: article
Abstract: This article examines the challenges faced by transgender and gender non-confirming individuals when attempting to access sanitation in urban India. It highlights how the experiences of these individuals intersect with broader social dynamics related to appearance, which can affect people of all genders. Using an iterative and inductive approach, the study combines insights from interviews with activists, academics and government practitioners, along with focus group discussions involving transgender and gender-nonconforming cisgender participants, to explore gaps in policy and implementation. The research highlights how ‘gendered’ sanitation programming and policy largely neglects non-cisgender communities, focusing predominantly on cisgender women, and often fails to address the nuanced sanitation needs of Transgender and Gender non-conforming persons, particularly transgender women. While sanitation programming emphasises technical infrastructure, social dimensions of sanitation, particularly appearance-based discrimination, remain largely unaddressed, creating exclusionary environments. Drawing on Goffman's theory of stigma, Meyer's Minority Stress Theory, and Bourdieu's concept of symbolic capital, the research elucidates how social stigma, chronic stress from discrimination, and the policing of gendered appearances converge to limit access and safety in sanitation spaces. These intersecting barriers affect both transgender and cisgender individuals who do not conform to normative gender expressions. The research urges a more intersectional, gender-sensitive approach to sanitation that confronts both technical and deeply embedded social obstacles. This research contributes to the limited literature on transgender access to basic services in India and underscores the necessity of addressing appearance-based discrimination to foster truly inclusive sanitation environments. • Sanitation access is shaped by stigma, stress, and gender appearance norms. • Indian Sanitation policy during Swachh Bharat overlooked social discrimination. • Social stigma and policy gaps compound transgender exclusion in sanitation access. • Appearance-based bias limits WASH access for all gender non-conforming people. • Cisgender people also face harm due to rigid, policed gender norms at toilets.
Source: Health & Place
Institutions: University of Leeds, The University of Western Australia
Language: English
Subfield: Social Psychology
Field: Psychology
Domain: Social Sciences
Open Access status: hybrid
Estimated APC paid: $3,380
OpenAlex ID: W4415315422