Work

Water footprint of China’s coal mining sector substantially underestimated

Year: 2025

Type: article

Abstract: China grapples with severe water scarcity exacerbated by a pronounced reverse spatial distribution between coal and water resources. Accurately assessing the water footprint of the coal mining is crucial for quantifying the water-associated risks and guiding sustainable sector practices. However, existing studies lack systematic frameworks for integrating grey water footprint accounting of heavy metals and other pollutants, leading to underestimated impacts. Based on the data of 12,378 coal mines operated from 2013 to 2022 in China, this study establishes a comprehensive water footprint assessment framework, integrating multiple spatial analysis, long temporal trends, and dual production-consumption perspectives. The results indicate that 208 coal mining technological configurations exhibit water footprint intensities ranging from 3.16 to 33.44 m3/t, with grey water contributing more than 85%. Large-surface coal mines demonstrate the lowest intensity, validating their water-saving potential. Over the decade, the water footprint intensity of coal production in China has decreased by 17.76%, while the consumption-side decreased by 16.75%. The total water footprint for coal production and consumption approximately fell from 43.5 Gm3 in 2013 to 38 Gm3 in 2022. Inter-provincial virtual water flows predominantly follow a north-to-south and west-to-east pattern, peaking in Shanxi-Hebei transfers exceeding 1 Gm3. Technological advancements reduced the national total consumption water footprint by 7.99 Gm3, whereas supply chain optimization drove more significant reductions in Fujian, Hunan, Jiangxi, and Chongqing. By rectifying grey water footprint underestimation and emphasizing heavy metal control, this study provides a scientific foundation of coal mining sector for spatially targeted water governance and ecological restoration.

Source: Ecological Indicators

DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolind.2025.114310