Work

Evaluating the Environmental Footprint of Steel-Based Bottle Closures: A Life Cycle Assessment Approach

Year: 2025

Type: article

Abstract: This research presents a detailed Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of 26 mm Crown cork metal closures used in glass bottle packaging, with the objective of quantifying and comparing their environmental impacts across all life cycle stages. This study adheres to ISO 14040 and ISO 14044 standards and utilizes Microsoft Excel for structuring and documenting input–output data across each phase. The LCA encompasses three primary stages: raw material production (covering iron ore extraction and steel manufacturing), manufacturing processes (including metal sheet printing, forming, and packaging of closures), and the transport phase (distribution to bottling facilities). During the Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), steel production emerged as the most environmentally burdensome phase. It accounted for the highest emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulphur oxides (SOx), while emissions of heavy metals and volatile organic compounds were found to be negligible. The Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) was carried out using the Eco-Indicator 99 methodology, which organizes emissions into impact categories related to human health, ecosystem quality, and resource depletion. Final weighting revealed that steel production is the dominant contributor to overall environmental impact, followed by the manufacturing stage. In contrast, transportation exhibited the lowest relative impact. The interpretation phase confirmed these findings and emphasized steel production as the critical stage for environmental optimization. This study highlights the potential for substantial environmental improvements through the adoption of low-emission steel production technologies, particularly Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) processes that incorporate high percentages of recycled steel. Implementing such technologies could reduce CO2 emissions by up to 68%, positioning steel production as a strategic focus for sustainability initiatives within the packaging sector.

Source: Journal of Experimental and Theoretical Analyses

DOI: 10.3390/jeta3040035

Authors: Irini Spyrolari, Alexandra Alexandropoulou, Eleni Didaskalou, Dimitrios Georgakellos

Institution: University of Piraeus

Language: English

Topic: Environmental Impact and Sustainability

Subfield: Environmental Engineering

Field: Environmental Science

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDGs: Responsible consumption and production, Climate action, Industry, innovation and infrastructure

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $1,207