Bi-Level Decision-Making for Commercial Charging Stations in Demand Response Considering Nonlinear User Satisfaction
Year: 2026
Type: article
Abstract: With the widespread adoption of electric vehicles, commercial charging stations (CCS) have grown rapidly as a core component of charging infrastructure. Due to the concentrated and high-power charging load characteristics of CCS, a ‘peak on peak’ phenomenon can occur in the power distribution network. Demand response (DR) serves as an important and flexible regulation tool for power systems, offering a new approach to addressing this issue. However, when CCS participates in DR, it faces a dual dilemma between operational revenue and user satisfaction. To address this, this paper proposes a bi-level, multi-objective framework that co-optimizes station profit and nonlinear user satisfaction. An asymmetric sigmoid mapping is used to capture threshold effects and diminishing marginal utility. Uncertainty in users’ charging behaviors is evaluated using a Monte Carlo scenario simulation together with chance constraints enforced at a 0.95 confidence level. The model is solved using the fast non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm, NSGA-II, and the compromise optimal solution is identified via the entropy-weighted Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS). Case studies show robust peak shaving with a 6.6 percent reduction in the daily maximum load, high satisfaction with a mean of around 0.96, and higher revenue with an improvement of about 12.4 percent over the baseline.
Source: Sustainability
DOI: 10.3390/su18020907
Authors: Weiqing Sun, En Xie, Wenwei Yang
Institution: University of Shanghai for Science and Technology
Language: English
Subfield: Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Field: Engineering
Domain: Physical Sciences
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $2,896
OpenAlex ID: W7124247770