Work

In-vitro and in-silico anti-staphylococcal effects of the Mayan medicinal plant Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl) Urb. (X-chintok): Disarming its resistance mechanisms and virulence factors

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Ethnopharmacological relevance Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl) Urb. , locally referred to as “X-chintok”, is a medicinal plant utilized in traditional Mayan medicine. It continues to be used in the treatment of urinary, skin, respiratory, and gastrointestinal infections, pain, and kidney stones. To date, research has been limited to screening the activity of their extracts on the growth and biofilm-formation of Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), which is a significant global health concern and colorimetric identification of phytoconstituents present in the anti-staphylococcal extract. Consequently, it is imperative to conduct a comprehensive investigation into its effects on bacterial resistance and virulence mechanisms as innovative strategies to combat antimicrobial resistance. Additionally, elucidating its phytochemical composition and exploring its potential targets are crucial. Aim of the study To investigate the anti-infective properties of K. ferreum against both methicillin-susceptible (MSSA) and MRSA strains, identify the phytoconstituents present in the bioactive extracts and perform in-silico analysis of relevant targets. Material and methods Organic and aqueous extracts from the bark and leaves were assessed for their effects on the resistance mechanisms and virulence factors of S. aureus using various in-vitro models. The metabolites identified by GC-MS were analyzed in-silico to identify the key elements contributing to the anti-infective activity of K. ferreum . Results Bioassays indicated that n -hexane bark (KFEB-1), ethyl acetate bark (KFEB-2), methanol leaves (KFEL-1), and water leaves (KFEL-4) extracts exhibited moderate to weak activity against MSSA and MRSA strains (MIC= 500-1000 μg/mL). Notably, KFEB-2 demonstrated a 64-fold reversal of ciprofloxacin-resistance in a clinical MRSA isolate (SAU- UIMY-1). Furthermore, KFEB-1 and KFEB-2 effectively inhibited biofilm-formation (IC 50 = 55.5 and 40.9 μg/mL, respectively) and hemolysis (IC 50 = 116.1 and 54.9 μg/mL, respectively) in S. aureus strains. GC-MS analysis identified fatty acids, phytosterols, tocopherols, and alkaloids as the major phytoconstituents in the bioactive extracts. Molecular docking studies of phytochemicals identified as having the highest percentage peak area in the GC-MS profiling of bioactive extracts demonstrated a significant binding affinity of stigmasterol (-8.8 kcal/mol) for the NorA efflux pump and stigmast-7-en-3-ol (-8.5 kcal/mol) for α-hemolysin. These findings suggest their potential roles in the observed anti-resistance and anti-virulence activities. Conclusions Our findings highlight the potential of K. ferreum against S. aureus and offer valuable insights for developing novel therapies targeting resistance mechanisms and virulence factors.

Source: Journal of Ethnopharmacology

DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2026.121265