Work

Sensor-integrated TPU soft actuators fabricated by foam additive manufacturing

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: The development of multifunctional soft devices requires materials that combine compliance with integrated sensing, yet most existing solutions rely on rigid sensors or on conductive filaments where anisotropic filler networks and infill-based porosity limit reproducibility. Previous work on foamed PLA has shown density reduction via additive manufacturing, but without functional integration, while conventional conductive TPU remains confined to bulk or patterned infill structures with poor electromechanical consistency. Here we present the first demonstration of Foam Additive Manufacturing (FAM) applied to carbon-black-filled thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) for the fabrication of lightweight, sensor-integrated soft actuators. By tuning solubilization, desorption, and extrusion conditions, we generate homogeneous microcellular foams with up to 42.2 % density reduction while preserving mechanical integrity. The resulting conductive foams exhibit stable and repeatable piezoresistive responses under load. Comparative tests on phalanx- and finger-like specimens confirm enhanced compliance and real-time resistance feedback during grasping and release, outperforming both bulk and infill-matched references. This work establishes FAM as a new route to directly print soft actuators that integrate structure and sensing in a single material, overcoming the anisotropy and scalability limits of previous foamed PLA and conductive TPU approaches. Potential applications span soft robotics, prosthetics, and wearable systems. • Foam Additive Manufacturing enables microcellular thermoplastic polyurethane soft actuators with up to 42.2 % density reduction. • A conductive microcellular architecture provides intrinsic piezoresistive sensing while preserving mechanical compliance. • Foamed specimens show a more repeatable electromechanical response than fully dense and mass-matched infill references under identical loading. • Finger-like prototypes demonstrate real-time resistance feedback during grasping and release, supporting sensor-integrated compliant grasping.

Source: Materials & Design

DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2026.115657

Authors: Andrea Lorenzo Henri Sergio Detry, Rosa Di Maio, Daniele Tammaro, Antonino Squillace

Institutions: University of Milan, University of Naples Federico II

Language: English

Topic: Soft Robotics and Applications

Subfield: Biomedical Engineering

Field: Engineering

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDG: Industry, innovation and infrastructure

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $3,650