Sustainable Ceramic–Adhesive Composites: Interfacial Degradation and Durability Under Environmental Stress
Year: 2026
Type: article
Abstract: Current international standards (EN 12004; SI 4004) are testing ceramic tile adhesives under post-cure thermal aging. However, the standards do not address UV radiation exposure during the fresh-adhesive phase. This research investigated the bond strength of three commercial polymer-modified cement adhesives (C2TE, C2TE-S2, C2T) to porcelain stoneware tiles under simulated Eastern Mediterranean and desert conditions. Three commercial adhesives were exposed during the initial (uncured) period to elevated temperature (30°C), humidity variation (40-65% RH), and UV radiation (295-365 nm, 1.5-2.0 mW/cm²) for 20 minutes, followed by 28 days of curing. Pull-off testing and scanning electron microscopy, combined with quantitative directionality analysis, were used to characterize the mechanical performance and microstructural degradation. UV exposure of adhesives during tiling working time caused a drop of mean bond strength from 1.77 to 0.26 MPa (85% reduction) compared with 1.77 to 0.64 MPa (36% reduction) under hot-arid conditions. Microstructural analysis of the hardened pull-off adhesives revealed that exposure of the fresh adhesive to UV radiation causes thinning and degradation of the interfacial layer (15-40 µm), leading to a drop in macroscopic strength. In contrast, hot-arid exposure induces adhesive bulk cracking while preserving interface integrity. Fracture surface directionality (goodness parameter), crack density, and delamination percentage together distinguish interface failure from adhesive bulk degradation and provide a forecast of long-term durability. This combined SEM-mechanical approach identified critical gaps in testing protocols and enables evidence-based adhesive selection, as current EN 12004 classifications, which are based solely on mechanical properties, prove insufficient.
Source: Buildings
Author: Rina (Irina) Wasserman
Institution: Western Galilee College
Language: English
Subfield: Earth-Surface Processes
Field: Earth and Planetary Sciences
Domain: Physical Sciences
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $3,137
OpenAlex ID: W7128712496