Semi-Quantitative Detection of Borax Adulteration in Wheat Flour Based on Microwave Non-Destructive Testing and Machine Learning
Year: 2026
Type: article
Abstract: The adulteration of wheat flour with borax poses a serious food safety risk, yet conventional rapid non-destructive screening methods remain limited. This study developed a machine learning-based microwave non-destructive semi-quantitative detection method for identifying borax adulteration in wheat flour. Using a proprietary microwave detection system, which acquires broadband frequency-domain amplitude attenuation and phase shift responses in the 2.5-11.5 GHz band, amplitude attenuation spectra and dimensional phase offset spectra were obtained from 155 samples prepared at three adulteration levels (0%, 0.1-0.9%, 1-5%). These samples simulated real-world adulteration scenarios. To address high-dimensionality and class imbalance, a hybrid Random Forest-Whale Optimization Algorithm (RF-WOA) was employed to synergistically optimize feature selection and model hyperparameters. Through hierarchical repeated validation and macro-level metric evaluation, this approach achieved an overall classification accuracy of 94.6% and a macro F1 score of 0.95 while compressing the original 1800-dimensional feature space to approximately 200 effective features. Confusion matrix analysis indicates 100% recall for undiluted samples, with misclassifications primarily occurring between adjacent adulteration levels and no false negatives introduced for adulterated samples. These results demonstrate that microwave sensing combined with the RF-WOA provides a rapid, non-destructive, and robust preliminary screening and grading evaluation strategy for borax adulteration in wheat flour, exhibiting significant potential in food safety monitoring and regulatory inspection.
Source: Foods
Institutions: Jiangsu University, Henan University of Technology
Language: English
Subfield: Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Field: Engineering
Domain: Physical Sciences
SDG: Zero hunger
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $3,499
OpenAlex ID: W7140078358