Work

Power control of PV generation, flexible loads, and battery energy storage for frequency reserves provision

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Power control systems (PCSs) can exploit the flexibility of low-carbon technologies (LCTs) to providegrid ancillary services. This work develops a PCS of photovoltaics (PVs), electric vehicles (EVs),heat pumps (HPs), and battery energy storage systems (BESS), which provides automatic frequencyrestoration reserves (aFRR), simultaneously with other objectives, such as energy arbitrage, PV selfconsumptionincrease, and customers’ thermal and charging comfort maintenance. The contributionof the BESS and the flexible loads to the PCS is evaluated under various conditions, such asdifferent seasons, grid types and sizes, and energy/reserve prices. Validating against a PCS solelyfor energy arbitrage, the findings demonstrate the potential for increased cost savings when a PCSparticipates in the reserve market, providing consistently higher than 100% cost reduction. This occursespecially when the flexible loads and BESS cooperate and interchangeably distribute the variousresponsibilities. These benefits become even more important in our years with the high increase inenergy prices, but also with the much higher reserve prices. While the always-present BESS is able tocontribute more to ancillary services provision compared to the uncertain nature of the EV fleets, thecontribution of EVs increased to a notable 38.5% compared to the BESS at grids or nodes of larger size.Finally, mixed nodes that comprise both residential-commercial buildings and home-public chargershave a higher potential for ancillary services provision due to higher flexibility, demonstrating a 5xand 12x higher potential compared to residential and commercial nodes, respectively.

Source: Sustainable Energy Grids and Networks

DOI: 10.1016/j.segan.2026.102228

Authors: Sam Warmerdam, Nikolaos Damianakis, Gautham Ram Chandra-Mouli

Institution: Delft University of Technology

Language: English

Topic: Smart Grid Energy Management

Subfield: Electrical and Electronic Engineering

Field: Engineering

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDGs: Affordable and clean energy, Industry, innovation and infrastructure, Climate action

Open Access status: hybrid

Estimated APC paid: $2,760