Work

The Impact of Temperature on Visitation Rate, Thermal Sensation, and Satisfaction Levels in Urban Parks in a Hot Summer

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: The ongoing rise in temperatures due to climate change is one of the most critical considerations in the design of outdoor recreational spaces. Thermal conditions can affect people’s visitation patterns, satisfaction, health and well-being. In many developing countries, including Jordan, rapid urbanisation often occurs without sufficient planning for public outdoor spaces, thereby diminishing their quality. This study is the first to investigate the effects of temperature on visitor patterns and user satisfaction in Jordanian urban parks. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining continuous measurements of outdoor temperature (Ta) and relative humidity (Rh) with a survey assessing users’ thermal sensation, satisfaction, and preferences across six urban parks in Amman, Jordan. Data were collected from 718 respondents in summer 2025. Visitation records for the surveyed parks were also obtained from local authorities for the monitored period. The results show that the mean Ta exceeded 30 °C in all surveyed parks during the monitoring period, with peak readings exceeding 41 °C. This resulted in a warm-to-hot thermal sensation among participants, with many preferring cooler conditions. A significant inverse relationship between temperature and park visitation rates (R2 = 0.67, p = 0.001) was observed, with a 1 °C increase in outdoor temperature associated with approximately a 2.03 visitor decrease. Participants’ satisfaction was higher in parks with adequate amenities, such as shading, disability access, and green zones, than in parks with fewer amenities (p = 0.01, d = 0.63). The most reported areas for improvement included facilities, shaded seating areas, and perceived safety. The findings highlight the importance of considering outdoor thermal conditions when designing urban parks, as they shape public outdoor activity patterns, particularly in hot climates.

Source: Urban Science

DOI: 10.3390/urbansci10040191

Authors: Rana Elnaklah, Amit Kant Kaushik, Badr Saad Alotaibi

Institutions: Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Northumbria University, Najran University

Language: English

Topic: Urban Heat Island Mitigation

Subfield: Environmental Engineering

Field: Environmental Science

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDGs: Sustainable cities and communities, Good health and well-being

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $1,930