Solar Flare Detection from Sudden Ionospheric Disturbances in VLF Signals via a CNN–HMM Framework
Year: 2026
Type: article
Abstract: In this paper we present a hybrid convolutional neural network-hidden Markov model framework for detecting solar flare events of intensity greater than or equal to M1.0 from very low frequency signals via their induced sudden ionospheric disturbances. The convolutional neural network processes fixed-length windows of raw very low frequency signals and their temporal derivatives to produce probabilistic flare estimates, which serve as emission probabilities for a two-state hidden Markov model. Viterbi decoding enforces temporal consistency, suppressing spurious fluctuations and yielding physically plausible event sequences. The approach is specifically designed to detect the onset-to-peak interval of flare events and, with further development, could operate in real time for early flare warning. The model was trained and evaluated on very low frequency data from the DHO38 transmitter in Germany to a receiver near Birr, Ireland. Sample-level evaluation achieved a balanced accuracy of 0.819 and a Matthews correlation coefficient of 0.529, while event-level detection reached a peak F1-score of 0.558 for moderate-to-strong flares of intensity greater than or equal to C6.0. These results demonstrate automated, physically consistent detection of solar flares based on sudden ionospheric disturbances, indicating the potential of the proposed approach, when combined across multiple receivers, to act as a low-cost complement to satellite-based monitoring.
Source: Sensors
DOI: 10.3390/s26082548
Authors: Yuliyan Velchev, Boncho Bonev, Ilia Iliev, Peter Gallagher, Peter Z. Petkov, Ivaylo Nachev
Language: English
Subfield: Astronomy and Astrophysics
Field: Physics and Astronomy
Domain: Physical Sciences
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $3,137
Award: G7948951800
OpenAlex ID: W7155066866