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Parenting Across European Cultures: Parental Practices and Adolescent Adjustment in Germany and Spain

Year: 2026
Type: article
Study design: Observational Study
Abstract: This study examines whether the association between parenting styles and adolescent adjustment reflects universal principles or culturally embedded processes, comparing adolescents from Germany (n = 395) and Spain (n = 331). Grounded in the bidimensional model of parental socialization (warmth × strictness), four styles were identified: authoritative, indulgent, authoritarian, and neglectful. Participants (Mage = 15.6 years) completed measures of parental socialization (ESPA29) and multidimensional self-concept (AF5); academic achievement was obtained from school records; and substance use was self-reported. A cross-sectional design was employed. Multivariate analyses of variance that revealed warmth was positively associated with all self-concept domains and negatively with substance use, whereas strictness showed weak or negative links. Significant Parenting Style × Country interactions emerged for academic self-concept, achievement, and substance use. In the Spanish sample, indulgent parenting exhibited a distinct pattern, particularly with respect to academic self-concept. Among German adolescents, both indulgent and authoritative styles yielded favorable outcomes, with authoritative parenting demonstrating protective effects against substance use. These findings suggest that the effectiveness of the authoritative style may not be uniform across contexts and underscore the importance of cultural factors in defining optimal parenting, supporting a contextualist model of adolescent socialization across European contexts.
DOI: 10.3390/bs16050638
Language: English
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $2,654
OpenAlex ID: W7155550133
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