Work

Multi-Frequency GNSS-IR Water-Level Estimation Using NMEA Observations from Low-Cost GNSS Receivers

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: The high-precision, continuous monitoring of the surface water level is of great importance for water resource management and the conservation of ecological systems. This study proposes a GNSS-IR-based water-level estimation method using NMEA observations collected from low-cost GNSS receivers. First, the NMEA-recorded satellite elevation angle, azimuth angle, and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) are processed using time-series characteristics for improving the resolution and applicability of these GNSS observations. Then, the multi-frequency GNSS signal-based reflector height inversion models are developed by making use of the Lomb–Scargle periodogram method. Finally, the Velocity Pausing Particle Swarm Optimization (VPPSO) algorithm is employed to calculate the reflector height estimation and thus the water level. Two experimental data sets collected in two different environments were used to test the proposed method. The experimental results show that the root mean square error (RMSE) of the water-level estimation error is less than 6 cm for the proposed method when the in situ ones are in the range of 196.4 cm to 296.1 cm. This study provides a theoretical and technical foundation for the development of the low-cost GNSS-IR water-level measuring instrument.

Source: Remote Sensing

DOI: 10.3390/rs18091396

Authors: Yangkai Gao, Tianhe Xu, Yunwei Li, Hai Guo

Institutions: Shandong University, Ministry of Natural Resources

Language: English

Topic: GNSS positioning and interference

Subfield: Aerospace Engineering

Field: Engineering

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDG: Clean water and sanitation

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $3,258