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How biological sex shapes differences in immune responses to infection

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Biological sex influences virtually every aspect of immune function, from infection susceptibility and vaccine responses to autoimmunity and cancer immunotherapy. Yet, despite decades of observation that males and females differ in disease outcomes, our mechanistic understanding of these differences remains incomplete. Emerging research reveals that sex differences in immunity arise from layered interactions between sex chromosome dosage, hormone signalling across the lifespan, epigenetic regulation, and tissue-specific immune cell states. At the same time, social and environmental factors intersect with biology, complicating interpretation and translation to treatment.

Source: Biology of Sex Differences

DOI: 10.1186/s13293-026-00881-1

Authors: Megan J. Wilson, Amedeo Amedei, Pora Kim, DeLisa Fairweather

Institutions: University of Otago, University of Florence, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Mayo Clinic in Florida

Language: English

Topic: Sex and Gender in Healthcare

Subfield: Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health

Field: Medicine

Domain: Health Sciences

SDGs: Good health and well-being, Reduced inequalities

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $3,290