Work

TGF-β and IL-2 differentially shape T follicular regulatory cell differentiation and stability in vitro

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: T follicular helper (Tfh) cells and T follicular regulatory (Tfr) cells play critical roles in regulating the activity of the germinal center (GC), which is essential for the generation of high-affinity antibodies. In the GC, Tfh cells help B cells to proliferate and to differentiate into memory B cells and long-lived plasma cells. In contrast, Tfr cells, a specialized subset of regulatory T cells (Tregs), modulate the humoral immune response by suppressing excessive or autoreactive B-cell activity. Here, we established an in vitro differentiation protocol for mouse CD4⁺ T cells that yielded CXCR5⁺FoxP3⁺ Tfr cells that exhibited a Bcl6 hi PD-1 hi CD25 lo GITR int phenotype and were distinct from Treg and Tfh cells. Functionally, in vitro-generated Tfr cells potently suppressed Tfh cell-driven B-cell class switching to IgG1 and downregulated the expression of B-cell costimulatory ligands. While in vitro-generated Bcl6 -deficient Tfh cells were impaired in providing help to B cells for efficient class switching to IgG1, in vitro-generated Bcl6 -deficient Tfr cells failed to inhibit Tfh cell-driven B-cell class switching to IgG1. Mechanistically, we showed that Tfr cells emerged from FoxP3 + precursors in low-IL-2 environments through a TGF-β- and c-Maf-dependent pathway, allowing for reprogramming and reinforcement of the follicular regulatory cell program in CD4 + T cells in vitro.

Source: Cellular and Molecular Immunology

DOI: 10.1038/s41423-026-01440-9