Adaptive Dual-AI Systems in E-Learning: A Dual-Path Analysis of LLMs and Hybrid AI Adoption Across Generations
Year: 2026
Type: article
Study design: Observational Study
Abstract: Large Language Models (LLMs) and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG)-based hybrid AI systems are increasingly transforming higher education, yet it remains unclear whether they are adopted through similar or distinct technology adoption pathways. This study compares the adoption of these two AI paradigms among postgraduate students using the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). It proposes the Adaptive Dual-AI Model (ADAM), which extends UTAUT by examining architecture-sensitive AI adoption within a unified framework. The model incorporates Technology Readiness (TR) and AI Awareness (AIA) as mediating variables and generational differences (Gen Z and Gen Y) as moderating factors. Data were collected from 639 postgraduate students enrolled in Saudi universities, of which 619 valid responses were retained after data screening. Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was employed to evaluate the proposed model. The results indicate that the two AI paradigms follow distinct technology adoption pathways. Behavioural intention toward standalone LLMs was primarily associated with Performance Expectancy (PE) and Effort Expectancy (EE), whereas the adoption of RAG-based hybrid AI systems was more strongly associated with indirect relationships involving Technology Readiness and AI Awareness. Multi-group analysis further revealed that Gen Z learners exhibited stronger associations with LLM adoption, whereas Gen Y learners demonstrated stronger relationships involving RAG-based hybrid AI systems. These findings support the proposed architecture-sensitive perspective of ADAM, suggesting that differences in AI architecture are associated with distinct technology adoption patterns. From a practical perspective, the findings provide guidance for higher education institutions in selecting complementary AI technologies according to learning objectives, learner characteristics, and evidence requirements. More broadly, the study contributes to technology adoption research by extending UTAUT to heterogeneous AI ecosystems and offers practical insights for designing adaptive, personalised, and evidence-aware learning environments.
Source: Computers
Author: Mostafa Aboulnour Salem
Institution: King Faisal University
Language: English
Subfield: Information Systems and Management
Field: Decision Sciences
Domain: Social Sciences
SDG: Quality education
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $2,172
OpenAlex ID: W7171545074