Work

Finite-Time Thermodynamics of Battery Discharging: Power–Efficiency Trade-Off and Optimization

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Battery discharging is governed by a fundamental trade-off between output power and energy conversion efficiency due to internal dissipation. In this paper, we demonstrate that such a trade-off universally yields a parabolic envelope P∝η(1-η). The efficiency at maximum power is exactly one half, mirroring the well-known half-Carnot limit in finite-time thermodynamics. To extend this bound into practical operational rules, we formulate a multistage constant-discharging (MSCD) schedule subject to simultaneous real-time load demands and a global discharging deadline. Analytical resolution via the Karush-Kuhn-Tucker conditions reveals a remarkably compact optimal policy: Ii★=max(Iireq,I0). Under this rule, stages limited by external demand run exactly at their minimum required currents, while all remaining stages are elevated to a uniform baseline I0 fixed by the deadline constraint. By tracing the dissipation-time Pareto front, we quantify how internal resistance shifts the operational boundaries and sharpens the trade-off corner. This analysis establishes a rigorous thermodynamic baseline for the scheduling layer of battery management systems, offering natural extensions to nonlinear models incorporating temperature and state-of-charge dependencies.

Source: Entropy

DOI: 10.3390/e28080852

Authors: Rui-Han Liu, Yun-Qian Lin, Yu-Han Ma

Institution: Beijing Normal University

Language: English

Topic: Advanced Battery Technologies Research

Subfield: Automotive Engineering

Field: Engineering

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDG: Affordable and clean energy

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $3,137