Association between maternal milk intake during pregnancy and birth size of infants: results from the Japan Environment and Children’s Study
Year: 2026
Type: article
Study design: Observational Study
Abstract: OBJECTIVES: Cow milk is rich in essential nutrients for fetal growth. We investigated associations of maternal milk intake and macronutrient intake from milk with birth size. METHODS: We included 79,976 mother-infant pairs from an ongoing nationwide prospective Japanese cohort study. Maternal milk intake (full-fat and low-fat milk) was assessed through a food frequency questionnaire. Multiple logistic regression was performed to investigate the associations of total milk intake and macronutrient intake from milk with small for gestational age (SGA) and large for gestational age. RESULTS: Median total milk intake was approximately 96.9 mL/day during pregnancy. The highest quintile of total milk intake was associated with a decreased SGA risk compared with the lowest quintile of total milk intake (odds ratio: 0.87; 95% confidence interval: 0.80-0.95). Compared with women who consumed full-fat milk less than once per month, women with a higher frequency of full-fat milk intake were less likely to have SGA. No association was observed when the analysis was limited to those who did not consume full-fat milk. Compared with the lowest quintile, the higher quintiles of protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake from milk were associated with a reduced risk of SGA. There were no associations of milk intake with large for gestational age. CONCLUSIONS: We found that milk intake during pregnancy, particularly full-fat milk, was associated with a lower risk of SGA in a cohort of pregnant women with relatively low milk intake. Our results support the hypothesis that milk intake during pregnancy promotes fetal growth.
Authors: Kazue Ishitsuka, Sjurdur F. Olsen, Thorhallur Halldorsson, Naho Morisaki, Norie Sawada, Utako Murai, Takehiro Michikawa, Shoji F. Nakayama, On behalf of the Japan Environment and Children’s Study Group, Tetsuo Nomiyama, Shin Yamazaki, Maki Fukami, Reiko Kishi, Chiharu Ota, Koichi Hashimoto, Kenichi Sakurai, Shuichi Ito, Sanae Otawa, Michihiro Kamijima, Eiji Yoshioka, Takeo Nakayama, Ryo Kawasaki, Yasuhiro Takeshima, Akemi Morita, Narufumi Suganuma, Mayumi Tsuji, Kimitoshi Nakamura
Institutions: University of Occupational and Environmental Health Japan, National Center For Child Health and Development, Statens Serum Institut, Harvard University, University of Iceland, Kyushu University, National Cancer Centre Japan, Toho University, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Shinshu University, Hokkaido University, Tohoku University, Fukushima Medical University, Chiba University, Yokohama City University, University of Yamanashi, Nagoya City University, University of Toyama, Kyoto University, The University of Osaka, Hyogo Medical University, Tottori University, Kōchi University, Kumamoto University
Language: English
Field: Medicine
Domain: Health Sciences
Open Access status: hybrid
Estimated APC paid: $3,590
Funder: Ministry of Environment
OpenAlex ID: W7203883104