Work

Seasonal variation in the density of the Persian leopard in the Hyrcanian forests of northern Iran

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Habitat compression increasingly confines Persian leopards ( Panthera pardus tulliana ) to the cores of protected areas, where refuge effects influence their spatial distribution and density. Understanding these patterns is crucial for effective habitat management, prey conservation, and mitigating intra- and interspecific competition. This study assessed Persian leopard density in Kiasar National Park and Dodangeh Wildlife Refuge across the cold and warm seasons, functioning as core habitats within the surrounding Hyrcanian–Alborz landscapes. Using camera traps and closed-population capture–recapture models over 12 months, we estimated seasonal leopard abundance and converted abundance estimates to density using a half mean maximum distance moved (HMMDM)-buffered effective sampling area. Camera traps recorded 18 individual Persian leopards (10 males and 8 females). HMMDM-based density estimates were 2.43 leopards/100 km² in the cold season and 3.36 leopards/100 km² in the warm season. Most individuals showed higher activity during the cold season. Our findings provide baseline information on Persian leopards in Kiasar National Park and Dodangeh Wildlife Refuge, highlighting these areas as relatively dense refuges for leopards in northern Iran. Individuals appear to concentrate in these areas, especially during the warm season, potentially due to habitat compression associated with livestock and human activities. To mitigate these pressures and their ecological consequences, expanding protected area boundaries, prioritizing prey-rich habitats, and maintaining continuous ranger patrols are essential, as they reduce habitat compression, lower intra- and interspecific competition, and enhance leopard survival.

Source: Global Ecology and Conservation

DOI: 10.1016/j.gecco.2026.e04404