Not all effort is equal: Invested and demanded effort in nicotine abstinence
Year: 2026
Type: preprint
Study design: Observational Study
Abstract: ObjectiveUnderstanding the connection between perceived effort and nicotine abstinence requires recognizing not only how much effort people anticipate exerting, but why they anticipate exerting it. The Invested and Demanded Effort Model (IDEM) provides a framework for distinguishing between perceptions of effort associated with favorable and unfavorable psychological conditions for abstinence.MethodE-cigarette users between the ages of 21 and 35 in the United States were recruited via Prolific (N = 253; Mage = 28.66, SDage = 4.22, 54.15% female, 45.85% male; 57.71% White, 20.16% Black, 9.09% Hispanic, 6.32% Mixed). We assessed anticipated invested and demanded effort toward nicotine abstinence (adapted Invested and Demanded Effort Scale [IDES]), states that make quitting feel difficult (e.g., e-cigarette dependence motivation, craving), goal-directed states that support quitting (e.g., cessation motivation), and abstinence-related traits (i.e., trait self-control, self-efficacy).ResultsAnticipated invested effort was associated with greater goal-directed states that support quitting including cessation motivation, cessation confidence, and willingness to bear the cost of abstinence whereas anticipated demanded effort was associated with greater states that make quitting feel difficult including e-cigarette dependence motivation, behavior, and craving and less willingness to bear the cost of abstinence. These findings were not attributable to confounding with trait self-control and self-efficacy.ConclusionsAnticipated effort had no universal connection with abstinence-related states but depended on whether effortful control is attributed to one’s volition irrespective of self-control demands (invested effort) or the demands of abstinence (demanded effort). These findings bolster IDEM and extend its relevance to self-control contexts.
Language: English
Field: Medicine
Domain: Health Sciences
Open Access status: green
OpenAlex ID: W7213225298