Work

Underwater adhesive hydrogels: Interfacial failure mechanisms, engineering strategies, and wearable electronics

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Underwater adhesive hydrogels are promising materials for wearable electronics because they combine mechanical compliance, interfacial adhesion, and electrical responsiveness. However, interfacial water, weakened adhesive interactions, and immersion-induced swelling can destabilize both adhesion and signal output. Recent advances have improved underwater adhesion by coordinating interfacial water regulation, adhesive bonding, and hydrogel network stability. Nevertheless, a systematic framework linking failure mechanisms, materials design, and wearable electronic applications is still lacking. This review discusses hydration-layer interference, interfacial bonding failure, and swelling-induced cohesion loss, and relates these mechanisms to representative engineering strategies. Applications in motion monitoring, physiological sensing, and human–machine interfaces are also summarized, together with the remaining challenges and future directions.

Source: European Polymer Journal

DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2026.115099

Authors: Xiaoliang Zou, Mengmeng Gou, Xiaodong Zhang, Li Wang

Institution: Weinan Normal University

Language: English

Topic: Hydrogels: synthesis, properties, applications

Subfield: Molecular Medicine

Field: Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology

Domain: Life Sciences

Open Access status: hybrid

Estimated APC paid: $4,330

Funders: Education Department of Shaanxi Province, Scientific Research Plan Projects of Shaanxi Education Department, Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi Province