Year: 2026
Type: article
Abstract: High car usage in urban areas leads to congestion, pollution, and other negative externalities. While both “carrot” measures (enhancing more sustainable modes of transport) and “stick” measures (discouraging car use) are recognized as essential for sustainable mobility, their combined optimization remains underexplored. This study introduces the Transit Network Design, Frequency, and Parking Setting Problem (TNDFPSP), a novel multiobjective framework that jointly optimizes transit routes, service frequencies, and parking fees in a bimodal context. The optimization problem targets three objectives: minimizing generalized user costs, car usage, and operator deficit, enabling a systematic analysis of trade‐offs between user, environmental, and operational goals. We propose an evolutionary algorithm tailored to this problem and evaluate candidate solutions using a multimodal traffic assignment model that explicitly captures car–transit interactions, including parking fees and search times. Experiments on Mandl’s benchmark network show that incorporating parking fees alongside frequencies not only improves all objectives but also enables better trade‐off analysis for policy design. As an illustrative estimate based on modal passenger‐kilometers, the resulting solutions are associated with an approximately 3.4% lower CO 2 footprint compared to the baseline TNDP, whereas optimizing transit routes and frequencies alone yields only marginal changes. These findings highlight the potential added value of integrated carrot‐and‐stick strategies for sustainable urban transport planning.
DOI: 10.1155/atr/1311015
Language: English
Subfield: Transportation
Field: Social Sciences
Domain: Social Sciences
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $2,760
Awards: G1129438428, G565383568
OpenAlex ID: W7214637676