Work

Electronic and Steric Effects on the Photoswitching and Thermal Relaxation of Ortho ‐Substituted Pyrazole Azo Phthalimides

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: A series of ortho-substituted phthalimide–azopyrazole photoswitches bearing CH3, CF3, tert-Bu, and Ph groups was developed to determine how local steric and electronic perturbations control photochemical addressability and thermal Z→E relaxation. The substituents strongly altered the preferred irradiation wavelength while producing modest differences in the attainable Z-rich photostationary states. The CF3 derivative underwent E→Z photoisomerization at 530 nm, whereas the other derivatives were switched at 370 nm. TD-DFT analysis attributes this spectral differentiation to orbital reordering, configuration mixing, and redistribution of oscillator strength within the low-energy excited-state manifold. Thermal Z→E half-lives span more than three orders of magnitude, from 112 s for the CH3 derivative to 73 h for the CF3 derivative. Eyring analysis reveals predominantly entropic differentiation among the CH3, tert-Bu, and Ph derivatives, whereas CF3 persistence is primarily enthalpic. Adiabatic S0 calculations reproduce the experimental stability order but do not account for the substantially negative experimental activation entropies. Relaxed T1 scans and optimized S0/T1 crossing points identify accessible twisted crossing regions. The combined results support a multidimensional relaxation landscape in which CNNC torsion, azo-nitrogen bending, and changes in N=N bond character constitute coupled coordinates whose energetic and configurational accessibility is reshaped by ortho substitution.

Source: Chemistry - A European Journal

DOI: 10.1002/chem.71851