Work

Psychometric validation of the Chinese Physical Effort Scale and profiles of physical-effort approach and avoidance among Chinese university students

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Objective: Individual differences in tendencies to approach or avoid physical effort may be relevant to exercise-related psychological and behavioral characteristics. This study examined the psychometric properties of the Chinese Physical Effort Scale (PES) and investigated individual differences in physical-effort approach and avoidance tendencies and their associations with exercise-related psychological and behavioral variables among Chinese university students. Methods: Participants were 1,273 students from six universities across eastern, central, and western China. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, reliability and validity analyses, and multigroup confirmatory factor analysis were used to evaluate the factor structure, reliability, validity, and measurement invariance of the Chinese PES. Latent profile analysis identified configurations of physical effort approach and avoidance, and BCH analyses compared profiles on emotion regulation, exercise motivation, and physical activity. Results: Factor analyses supported a two-factor structure comprising physical effort approach and avoidance. The scale showed high internal consistency and test-retest reliability, with evidence supporting convergent and discriminant validity and metric and scalar invariance across gender and academic year. Three profiles were identified: Balanced (59.07%), Avoidance-Oriented (14.93%), and Approach-Oriented (26.00%). The Approach-Oriented profile showed higher cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, external regulation, introjected regulation, and autonomous regulation, and lower amotivation. It also showed higher total physical activity than the other profiles and higher weekly exercise frequency than the Balanced profile. Conclusion: The Chinese PES showed psychometric support among Chinese university students. Distinct configurations of physical effort approach and avoidance were associated with emotion regulation, exercise motivation, and physical activity.

Source: Frontiers in Psychology

DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1959219

Authors: Yijun Liu, Qiang Zhou

Institution: Nanchang University

Language: English

Topic: Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports

Subfield: Social Psychology

Field: Psychology

Domain: Social Sciences

SDG: Good health and well-being

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $3,801