Traumatic brain injury (TBI): From classification to mechanistic insights
Year: 2026
Type: article
Abstract: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading global public health issue, with an estimated 50–60 million people affected annually. TBI is the primary cause of death and disability among young individuals, and nearly half the world’s population is expected to experience a TBI at some point in their lives. Most TBIs are classified as mild, but even mild injuries can have significant long-term effects. Mild repetitive traumatic brain injury (mRTBI), involving multiple TBIs over time and often seen in contact sports athletes and military personnel, leads to cumulative neurological damage and a higher risk of chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE), Alzheimer’s disease (AD), and Parkinson’s disease (PD). These repetitive injuries are associated with more severe and persistent cognitive, behavioral, and emotional disturbances than a single TBI.The pathophysiology of mRTBI is multifactorial, involving primary and secondary injury mechanisms including overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), loss of neuronal membrane integrity, excitatory neurotransmitter release, and microglial activation. These processes disrupt neurotrophic signaling, promote neuroinflammation, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy. These injuries disrupt brain physiology, leading to cognitive, behavioral, and motor deficits, as well as systemic effects. The present review offers detailed overview of TBI including classification, epidemiology, and public health impact as long as pathophysiological Mechanisms.
Language: English
Subfield: Clinical Neurology
Field: Medicine
Domain: Health Sciences
Open Access status: gold
Estimated APC paid: $200
OpenAlex ID: W7222889117