Work

Duty-Cycle-Driven Energy Storage Sizing for Electrified Port Cargo-Handling Equipment: A Grid-to-Actuator Energy-Flow Review

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Electrification of port cargo-handling equipment couples storage capacity with bidirectional power, thermal limits, ageing and access to replenishment. This critical review organizes published evidence through a grid-to-actuator energy-flow ledger and a duty-to-sizing procedure. It distinguishes direct port measurements, port simulations and transferable non-port methods, and compares its scope with earlier reviews of port energy efficiency, RTG storage, non-road powertrains, battery ageing and AGV operations. Four normalized accounting indicators retain conventional efficiency and recovery concepts while separating task-dependent recovery opportunity from achieved recovery. An explicitly constructed RTG example demonstrates the calculation, rather than providing new field validation. Under its stated two-hour duty, 80% capacity-retention and 2C discharge/1C charge assumptions, average-energy sizing gives 88.7 kWh, whereas combined energy and bidirectional-power constraints require at least 211.4 kWh; regenerative charge acceptance is limiting. Independent port-equipment studies and field demonstrations show that replenishment access, equipment reliability and infrastructure change the practical value of nominal capacity. A published LFP ageing model additionally links four declared exposure profiles to conditional capacity bounds. The review integrates these findings into transparent constraints, an evidence comparison and a lifetime-cost framework. Its contribution is a transparent synthesis for storage screening and evidence reporting; equipment-specific telemetry, cell power maps and port-calibrated degradation models remain necessary for a validated design.

Source: Energies

DOI: 10.3390/en19204933

Authors: He Zhu, Panpan Song, Libo Lan, Qingqing Yang, Qianli Ma, Peng Jia

Institutions: Beijing Institute of Technology, Dalian Maritime University

Language: English

Topic: Electric and Hybrid Vehicle Technologies

Subfield: Automotive Engineering

Field: Engineering

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDGs: Affordable and clean energy, Industry, innovation and infrastructure, Climate action

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $3,137