Work

Ocean acidification impairs embryonic development and disrupts ink sac gene expression in the pharaoh cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis)

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Background Ocean acidification (OA) represents a growing threat to marine biodiversity, particularly affecting the sensitive early life stages of invertebrates. While the physiological impacts of OA are widely recognized, its specific effects on organogenesis and the molecular regulation of defensive traits in cephalopods remain poorly understood. This study investigated the influence of acidified seawater on the embryonic development and ink sac formation in the Pharaoh cuttlefish ( Sepia pharaonis ). Methods Embryos were reared under four pH conditions (8.0, 7.7, 7.3, and 6.5). Embryonic growth, survival, hatching success, and ink sac morphogenesis were monitored throughout development. The expression of melanin synthesis–related genes, including tyr, per , and spNOS , was quantified using qRT-PCR. Results Ocean acidification impaired embryonic development in a pH-dependent manner. Severe acidification (pH 6.5) resulted in complete mortality and no surviving embryos by Day 9, while moderate acidification (pH 7.3) led to delayed development and failure to hatch by Day 11, compared to the hatching observed in the control group. Ink sac development was markedly inhibited under acidified conditions, resulting in reduced size and pigmentation. Consistent with these morphological abnormalities, the expression of melanin synthesis markers, including tyrosinase ( tyr ) and peroxidase ( per ), exhibited a biphasic response, with early transient induction followed by consistent downregulation across all acidified treatments, while, the expression of the regulatory gene Sepia pharaonis nitric oxide synthase ( spNOS ) was significantly suppressed under severe acidification. Conclusions These findings provide evidence that OA is associated with disrupted embryogenesis and impaired ink sac formation in S. pharaonis , accompanied by altered expression of melanin synthesis-related genes. The resulting reduction in defensive capacity may increase the vulnerability of hatchlings and potentially affect population recruitment under future ocean acidification scenarios.

Source: Frontiers in Physiology

DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2026.1979863