Work

Microbiological drinking water quality at source and consumption in Indonesia: An analysis of the national drinking water quality study

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Understanding drinking water quality at both the point of collection (POC) and point of use (POU) is essential to guide national drinking water risk management. Using data from the 2020 national survey on household drinking water quality, this study analysed over 21,000 POC and POU samples in Indonesia through statistical methods and Bayesian Belief Networks. The analysis reveals that microbial contamination was found in 68% of 100 mL POC and 26% of 1 mL POU household samples. Furthermore, E. coli was detected in 69.8% of self-supply POCs, i.e., household water sources that are privately owned and managed. The water quality in POU was significantly correlated with the water quality in POC. One-third of households in Indonesia rely on packaged drinking water, yet one-fourth of them are microbiologically contaminated, especially from refilled water depots compared to branded products. Contamination varied by province, with poorer POU quality in Eastern Indonesia and poorer POC quality in Java regions. Household practices, including storage container conditions, hygiene environment, and safe handling, were associated with POU quality. Microbiological contamination was still found in one–fourth of the households that reported treating their drinking water, and the treatment effect was diminished when sanitation and hygiene were inadequate. Safe water source, adequate sanitation, proper storage and handling form the most protective combination for household water safety. National interventions should therefore integrate improvements in source water quality through water safety planning, stronger monitoring of self-supply and packaged water, and promotion of safe household practices. Strengthening these measures is crucial to reducing microbial risks and protecting public health in Indonesia.

Source: Cleaner Water

DOI: 10.1016/j.clwat.2026.100343

Authors: Heru Prasetyo, D. Daniel

Institution: Universitas Gadjah Mada

Language: English

Topic: Fecal contamination and water quality

Subfield: Water Science and Technology

Field: Environmental Science

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDGs: Clean water and sanitation, Good health and well-being

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $1,230