Quantifying the fatal and non-fatal burden of disease associated with child growth failure, 2000–2023: a systematic analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2023
Year: 2025
Type: article
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Child growth failure (CGF), which includes underweight, wasting, and stunting, is among the factors most strongly associated with mortality and morbidity in children younger than 5 years worldwide. Poor height and bodyweight gain arise from a variety of biological and sociodemographic factors and are associated with increased vulnerability to infectious diseases. We used data from the Global Burden of Diseases, Injuries, and Risk Factors Study (GBD) 2023 to estimate CGF prevalence, the risk of infectious diseases associated with CGF, and the disease mortality, morbidity, and overall burden associated with CGF. METHODS: In this analysis we estimated the all-cause and cause-specific (diarrhoea, lower respiratory tract infections, malaria, and measles) disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs) lost and mortality associated with stunting, wasting, underweight, and CGF in aggregate. We combined the burden associated with mild, moderate, and severe forms of CGF: stunting was defined as height-for-age Z scores (HAZ) less than -1, underweight was defined as weight-for-age Z scores (WAZ) less than -1, and wasting was defined as weight-for-height Z scores (WHZ) less than -1, according to WHO Child Growth Standards. Population-level continuous distributions of HAZ, WAZ, and WHZ were estimated for 2000 to 2023 using data from surveys, literature, and individual-level study data. The risk of incidence of, and mortality due to, diarrhoea, lower respiratory infections, malaria, and measles was separately estimated in a meta-regression framework from longitudinal cohort data for Z scores less than -1. Finally, fatal outcomes associated with these diseases were estimated with vital registration, verbal autopsy, and case-fatality data, while non-fatal outcomes were estimated with surveys as well as health-care utilisation and case reporting data. The exposure prevalence and relative risk estimates were from continuous distributions, allowing for direct assessment of the attributable fractions for mild, moderate, and severe stunting, underweight, wasting, and the combined impact of child growth failure within populations. All estimates were age-specific, sex-specific, geography-specific, and year-specific. FINDINGS: We estimated that, in children younger than 5 years in 2023, CGF was associated with 79·4 million (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 47·0-106) DALYs lost and 880 000 (517 000-1 170 000) deaths. This represented 17·9% (10·6-23·8) of 444 million (434-457) total under-5 DALYs and 18·8% (11·1-25·0) of all 4·67 million (4·59-4·75) under-5 deaths. Compared to stunting (33·0 million [24·1-42·2] DALYs, 373 000 [272 000-477 000] deaths) and wasting (39·2 million [23·8-53·0] DALYs, 428 000 [256 000-583 000] deaths), childhood underweight was associated with the largest share of CGF-related disease burden: 52·2 million (21·9-75·1) DALYs and 573 000 (236 000-824 000) deaths in children younger than 5 years in 2023. INTERPRETATION: CGF remains a leading factor associated with death and disability in children younger than 5 years, despite global attention and focused interventions to reduce the prevalence of associated CGF indicators. Our findings underscore the need for policies, strategies, and interventions that focus on all indicators of CGF to reduce its associated health burden. FUNDING: Gates Foundation.
Authors: Christopher E Troeger, Michael Benjamin Arndt, Hasan Aalruz, Meriem Abdoun, Auwal Abdullahi, Mesfin Abebe, Armita Abedi, Alemwork Abie, Richard Gyan Aboagye, Hassan Abolhassani, Yonas Derso Abtew, Ahmed Abu-Zaid, Lawan Hassan Adamu, Mesafint Molla Adane, Isaac Yeboah Addo, Oyelola A Adegboye, Victor Adekanmbi, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Qorinah Estiningtyas Sakilah Adnani, Leticia Akua Adzigbli, Muhammad Sohail Afzal, Saira Afzal, Navidha Aggarwal, Aqeel Ahmad, Muayyad M Ahmad, Sajjad Ahmad, Elham Ahmadi, Ayman Ahmed, Haroon Ahmed, Mehrunnisha Sharif Ahmed, Mushood Ahmed, Marjan Ajami, Budi Aji, Syed Mahfuz Al Hasan, Omar Al Omari, Mohammad Khursheed Alam, Mohammed Albashtawy, Fentahun Alemnew, Ayman Al-Eyadhy, Mohammed Usman Ali, Rafat Ali, Syed Shujait Ali, Waad Ali, Joseph Uy Almazan, Hesham M Al-Mekhlafi, Mohammed A Alsabri, Najim Z. Alshahrani, Awais Altaf, Nelson Alvis-Guzman, Mohammad Al-Wardat, Hany Aly, Dickson A Amugsi, Abhishek Anil, Zelalem Alamrew Anteneh, Boluwatife Stephen Anuoluwa, Saeid Anvari, Anayochukwu Edward Anyasodor, Jalal Arabloo, Aleksandr Y Aravkin, Demelash Areda, Mahwish Arooj, Anton A Artamonov, Ashokan Arumugam, Nurila Aryntayeva, Bernard Kwadwo Yeboah Asiamah-Asare, Seyyed Shamsadin Athari, Maha Moh'd Wahbi Atout, Amlaku Mulat Aweke, Adedapo Wasiu Awotidebe, Asteray Assmie Ayenew, Melkalem Mamuye Azanaw, Shahkaar Aziz, Giridhara Rathnaiah Babu, Ruhai Bai, Jennifer L Baker, Wondu Feyisa Balcha, Palash Chandra Banik, Mainak Bardhan, Amadou Barrow, Shahid Bashir, Afisu Basiru, Quique Bassat, Mohammad-Mahdi Bastan, Priyamadhaba Behera, Michelle L Bell, Maryam Bemanalizadeh, Ajeet Singh Bhadoria, Sonu Bhaskar, Priyadarshini Bhattacharjee, Jasvinder Singh Bhatti, Catherine Bisignano, Bijit Biswas, Trupti Bodhare, Srinivasa Rao Bolla, Sri Harsha Boppana, Angelo Capodici, Rama Mohan Chandika, Vijay Kumar Chattu, Anis Ahmad Chaudhary, Moges Sisay Chekole, Hana Chen, Daniel Youngwhan Cho, Sonali Gajanan Choudhari, Isaac Sunday Chukwu, Erin Chung, Natalia Cruz-Martins, Alanna Gomes da Silva, Tukur Dahiru, Xiaochen Dai, Lalit Dandona, Rakhi Dandona, Samuel Demissie Darcho, Amira Hamed Darwish, Fernando Pio De la Hoz, Edgar Denova-Gutiérrez, Vinoth Gnana Chellaiyan Devanbu, Devananda Devegowda, Adriana Dima, Thanh Chi Do, Robert Kokou Dowou, Angel Belle Cheng Dy, Ibrahim Farahat El Bayoumy, Marwa Eldegwi, Muhammed Elhadi, Legesse Tesfaye Elilo, Iman El Sayed, Abidemi Omolara Fasanmi, Marta Figueiredo, Florian Fischer, Artem Alekseevich Fomenkov, Amin Fraij, Amanuel Tesfay Gebremedhin, Lemma Getacher, Genanew K Getahun, Maryam Gholamalizadeh, Nora M Gilbertson, Alem Abera Girmay, Mahaveer Golechha, Dinorah Gonzalez-Castell, Michal Grivna, Shi-Yang Guan, Mohammed Ibrahim Mohialdeen Gubari, Damitha Asanga Gunawardane, Zhifeng Guo, Bhawna Gupta, Rajat Das Gupta, Demewoz Haile, Nadia M Hamdy, Alexis J Handal, Nasrin Hanifi, Habtamu Endashaw Hareru, Eka Mishbahatul Marah Has, Ahmed I Hasaballah, Ikrama Hassan, Simon I Hay, Khezar Hayat, Jiawei He, Behzad Heibati, Austin Heuer, Kamal Hezam, Ramesh Holla, Md Sabbir Hossain, Hassan Hosseinzadeh, Sorin Hostiuc, Tanvir M Huda, Javid Hussain, Dursa Hussein, Hong-Han Huynh, Bing-Fang Hwang, Segun Emmanuel Ibitoye, Mustapha Immurana, Teresa R Iskander, Md Rabiul Islam, Md Sahidul Islam, Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam, Louis Jacob, Mihajlo Jakovljevic, Shubha Jayaram, Achala Upendra Jayatilleke, Wenyi Jin, Alex Joseph, Nitin Joseph, Ali Kabir, Vidya Kadashetti, Dler H. Hussein Kadir, Sanjay Kalra, Arun Kamireddy, Kehinde Kazeem Kanmodi, Rami S Kantar, Faizan Zaffar Kashoo, Gbenga A Kayode, Shemsu Kedir, Tibebeselassie S Keflie, Ajmal Khan, Maseer Khan, Vishnu Khanal, Shaghayegh Khanmohammadi, Khaled Khatab, Moawiah Mohammad Khatatbeh, Mahalaqua Nazli Khatib, Feriha Fatima Khidri, Kwanghyun Kim, Min Seo Kim, Adnan Kisa, Farzad Kompani, Isaac Koomson, Kewal Krishan, Mukhtar Kulimbet, Dewesh Kumar, G Anil Kumar, Nithin Kumar, Vijay Kumar, Almagul Kurmanova, Maria Dyah Kurniasari, Dian Kusuma, Chandrakant Lahariya, Kamaluddin Latief, Minh Huu Nhat Le, Nhi Huu Hanh Le, Sang-woong Lee, Seung Won Lee, Yo Han Lee, Virendra S Ligade, Stephen S Lim, Jialing Lin, Jue Liu, Xuefeng Liu, Rakesh Lodha, José Francisco López-Gil, Surbala Devi Lourembam, Zheng Feei Ma, Mahmoud Mabrok, Kashish Malhotra, Ahmad Azam Malik, Vahid Mansouri, Emmanuel Manu, Melvin Barrientos Marzan, Roy Rillera Marzo, Sammer Marzouk, Medha Mathur, Rita Mattiello, Rishi P Mediratta, Riffat Mehboob, Kala M Mehta, Tesfahun Mekene Meto, Tomislav Mestrovic, Sachith Mettananda, Tomasz Miazgowski, Giuseppe Minervini, Mojgan Mirghafourvand, Andreea Mirica, Jama Mohamed, Nouh Saad Mohamed, Sakineh Mohammad-Alizadeh-Charandabi, Abdollah Mohammadian-Hafshejani, Shafiu Mohammed, Ali H Mokdad, Lorenzo Monasta, Mohammad Ali Moni, Sumaira Mubarik, Sumoni Mukherjee, Sileshi Mulatu, Francesk Mulita, Christopher J L Murray, Ghulam Mustafa, Ayoub Nafei, Ganesh R Naik, Zuhair S Natto, Javaid Nauman, Samidi Nirasha Kumari Navaratna, Biswa Prakash Nayak, Amanuel Tebabal Nega, Samata Nepal, Henok Biresaw Netsere, Georges Nguefack-Tsague, Dang Nguyen, The Phuong Nguyen, Robina Khan Niazi, Ali Nikoobar, Lawrence Achilles Nnyanzi, Shuhei Nomura, Mehran Nouri, Chisom Adaobi Nri-Ezedi, Dieta Nurrika, Sylvester Dodzi Nyadanu, Chimezie Igwegbe Nzoputam, Ogochukwu Janet Nzoputam, Ismail A Odetokun, Hassan Okati-Aliabad, Akinkunmi Paul Okekunle, Osaretin Christabel Okonji, Bolajoko Olubukunola Olusanya, Jacob Olusegun Olusanya, Uchechukwu Levi Osuagwu, Amel Ouyahia, Mahesh P, Jagadish Rao Padubidri, Anca Pantea Stoian, Romil R Parikh, Jay Patel, Shankargouda Patil, Shrikant Pawar, Gavin Pereira, Arokiasamy Perianayagam, Fanny Emily Petermann-Rocha, Hoang Nhat Pham, Hoang Tran Pham, My Kieu Phan, Jalandhar Pradhan, Pranil Man Singh Pradhan, Akila Prashant, Jagadeesh Puvvula, Ibrahim Qattea, Pankaja Raghav, Md. Mosfequr Rahman, Mosiur Rahman, Muhammad Aziz Rahman, Amir Masoud Rahmani, Masoud Rahmati, Rajesh Kumar Rai, Ivano Raimondo, Sathish Rajaa, Rayan Rajabi, Mahmoud Mohammed Ramadan, Chitra Ramasamy, Shakthi Kumaran Ramasamy, Chhabi Lal Ranabhat, Chythra R Rao, Sowmya J Rao, Davide Rasella, Mamunur Rashid, Devarajan Rathish, Santosh Kumar Rauniyar, David Laith Rawaf, Salman Rawaf, Nazila Rezaei, Mohsen Rezaeian, Thales Philipe Rodrigues da Silva, Jefferson Antonio Buendia Rodriguez, Peter Rohloff, Debby Syahru Romadlon, Bedanta Roy, Shubhanjali Roy, Cameron John Sabet, Kabir P Sadarangani, Basema Ahmad Saddik, Umar Saeed, Amene Saghazadeh, Dominic Sagoe, Narjes Saheb Sharif-Askari, Amirhossein Sahebkar, Pragyan Monalisa Sahoo, Yoseph Leonardo Samodra, Abdallah M Samy, Rama Krishna Sanjeev, Senthilkumar Sankararaman, Milena M Santric-Milicevic, Jacob Owusu Sarfo, Yaser Sarikhani, Tanmay Sarkar, Gargi Sachin Sarode, Sachin C Sarode, Benn Sartorius, Jennifer Saulam, Monika Sawhney, Ganesh Kumar Saya, Christophe Schinckus, Art Schuermans, Ashenafi Kibret Sendekie, Subramanian Senthilkumaran, Yashendra Sethi, Allen Seylani, Shazlin Shaharudin, Samiah Shahid, Masood Ali Shaikh, Sunder Sham, Muhammad Aaqib Shamim, Mohd Shanawaz, Mohammed Shannawaz, Nigussie Tadesse Sharew, Vishal Sharma, Pavanchand H Shetty, Aminu Shittu, Ivy Shiue, Seyed Afshin Shorofi, Emmanuel Edwar Siddig, Mithun Sikdar, Luís Manuel Lopes Rodrigues Silva, Harmanjit Singh, Jasvinder A Singh, Kalpana Singh, Surjit Singh, Shipra Solanki, Mansi Soni, Reed J D Sorensen, Muhammad Suleman, Desy Sulistiyorini, Chandan Kumar Swain, Seyyed Mohammad Tabatabaei, Seyed-Amir Tabatabaeizadeh, Mohammad Tabish, Jacques Lukenze Tamuzi, Birhan Tsegaw Taye, Wegayehu Zeneb Teklehaimanot, Abainash Tekola, Mohamad-Hani Temsah, Rekha Thapar, Jansje Henny Vera Ticoalu, Tenaw Yimer Tiruye, Mariya Vladimirovna Titova, Sojit Tomo, Marcos Roberto Tovani-Palone, Quynh Thuy Huong Tran, Thang Huu Tran, Nguyen Tran Minh Duc, Aristidis Tsatsakis, Abdul Rohim Tualeka, Saeed Ullah, Shahid Ullah, Muhammad Umair, Bhaskaran Unnikrishnan, Era Upadhyay, Jibrin Sammani Usman, Jef Van den Eynde, Siavash Vaziri, Balachandar Vellingiri, Vasily Vlassov, Gebeyaw Biset Wagaw, Yanzhong Wang, Felicia Wu, Hong Xiao, Vikas Yadav, Galal Yahya, Dong Keon Yon, Naohiro Yonemoto, Chuanhua Yu, Sojib Bin Zaman, Iman Zare, Michael Zastrozhin, Mohammed G M Zeariya, Salih M Mustafa Salih Zebari, Claire Chenwen Zhong, Nicholas J Kassebaum, Robert C Reiner
Institutions: University of Washington, Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation, Al-Zaytoonah University of Jordan, University Ferhat Abbas of Setif, Federal University Wukari, Bayero University Kano, Dilla University, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Bahir Dar University, University of Health and Allied Sciences, UNSW Sydney, Karolinska Institutet, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Arba Minch University, Alfaisal University, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, University of Memphis, Federal University Dutse, The University of Sydney, Charles Darwin University, Menzies School of Health Research, The University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, Osun State University, Padjadjaran University, University of Management and Technology, King Edward Medical University, Maharishi Markandeshwar University, Mullana, Shaqra University, University of Jordan, Abasyn University, Lebanese American University, University of Khartoum, Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, University of Basel, COMSATS University Islamabad, Rawalpindi Medical University, Majmaah University, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Jenderal Soedirman University, Washington University in St. Louis, Sultan Qaboos University, Jouf University, Al al-Bayt University, King Saud University, Chinese University of Hong Kong, University of Maiduguri, Jamia Millia Islamia, University of Swat, Nazarbayev University, Sana'a University, University of Malaya, Drexel University, University of Jeddah, University of Lahore, Equator University of Science and Technology, University of Cartagena, University of the Coast, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Cleveland Clinic, African Population and Health Research Center, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Bhubaneswar, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Arizona State University, Ottawa University, Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Biomedical Problems, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, University of Sharjah, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Kazakh National Medical University, Deakin University, Philadelphia University, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Flinders University, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar, Qatar University, Nanjing Children's Hospital, Bispebjerg Hospital, Center for Clinical Research and Prevention, Bangladesh University of Health Sciences, University of Miami, University of the Gambia, University of Florida, University of Ilorin, Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats, Barcelona Institute for Global Health, Non-Communicable Diseases Research Center, Korea University, Yale University, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, University of South Wales, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Rishikesh, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Newcastle University, Central University of Punjab, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Deoghar, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Johns Hopkins University, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Azienda Unità Sanitaria Locale Della Romagna, Jazan University, Datta Meghe Institute of Higher Education and Research, Semey Medical University, Imam Mohammad ibn Saud Islamic University, Debre Berhan University, Curtin University Sarawak, Curtin University, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Federal Medical Centre, Universidade do Porto, i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, University of Minho, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Ahmadu Bello University, Public Health Foundation of India, Haramaya University, Tanta University, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán, Chettinad Academy of Research and Education, JSS Academy of Higher Education and Research, JSS Medical College and Hospital, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Pham Ngoc Thach University of Medicine, Ateneo de Manila University, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, Texila American University, Kafrelsheikh University, Houston Methodist, Wachemo University, Alexandria University, Emory University, Morehouse School of Medicine, Escola Superior de Saúde do Alcoitão, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Timiryazev Institute of Plant Physiology, Edith Cowan University, Menelik II Medical and Health Science College, Shahid Beheshti University, Aksum University, Indian Institute of Public Health Gandhinagar, Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, United Arab Emirates University, Charles University, Anhui Medical University, University of Sulaimani, University of Peradeniya, Torrens University Australia, University of South Carolina, BRAC University, Ain Shams University, University of Michigan, La Trobe University, Universitas Airlangga, Al-Azhar University, Federal University Lafia, Federal University Teaching Hospital, Lafia, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Xi'an Jiaotong University, University of Alberta, Nankai University, Taiz University, Kasturba Medical College, Mangalore, Shahjalal University of Science and Technology, University of Wollongong, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, University of Nizwa, Salale University, Taipei Medical University, Asia University, China Medical University, University of Ibadan, World Health Organization - Bangladesh, Université Paris Cité, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, Shaanxi University of Technology, The World Academy of Sciences, Post Graduate Institute of Medicine, University of Colombo, Sri Lanka, University of Colombo, City University of Hong Kong, Wuhan University, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Cihan University-Erbil, Salahaddin University-Erbil, Chandigarh University, Bharti Hospital, Cephas Health Research Initiative, NYU Langone Health, New York University, Utrecht University, Institute of Human Virology, University of Hohenheim, Ohio University Zanesville, Sheffield Hallam University, Yarmouk University, Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences, Creighton University, Broad Institute, Massachusetts General Hospital, Tulane University, Høyskolen Kristiania, Children's Medical Center, The University of Queensland, Panjab University, Rajendra Institute of Medical Sciences, Manipal University Jaipur, Satya Wacana Christian University, Khalifa University of Science and Technology, University of Indonesia, University of Medicine and Pharmacy at Ho Chi Minh City, Methodist Hospital, Gachon University, Sungkyunkwan University, Peking University, Case Western Reserve University, Universidad Espíritu Santo, Universidad de Los Lagos, Charotar University of Science and Technology, University of the West of England, Suez Canal University, King Salman International University, University of Birmingham, King Abdulaziz University, Digestive Disease Research Institute, Monash University Malaysia, Northwestern University, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Stanford Medicine, Stanford University, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, University of California, San Francisco, University North, University of Kelaniya, Colombo North Teaching Hospital, Pomeranian Medical University, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Saveetha University, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, University of Hargeisa, Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, Heidelberg University, Heidelberg Institute of Global Health, IRCCS Materno Infantile Burlo Garofolo, University of Groningen, University of Thessaly, General University Hospital of Patras, Elderly Health Research Center, Harvard University, Al Ain University, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Amity University, Lumbini Medical College, University of Gondar, Université de Yaoundé I, University of South Florida, Hitotsubashi University, National Cancer Centre Japan, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Teesside University, Tohoku University, Keio University, Shiraz University, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education, University of Benin, Benson Idahosa University, Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Seoul National University, University of the Western Cape, Centre for Healthy Start Initiative, Western Sydney University, Centre Hospito Universitaire de Sétif, University of Minnesota, University of Leeds, Roseman University of Health Sciences, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, University of Glasgow, Universidad Diego Portales, Mayo Clinic, University of Arizona, Weiss Memorial Hospital, Nam Can Tho University, National Institute of Technology Rourkela, Tribhuvan University, University of Pennsylvania, All India Institute of Medical Sciences Jodhpur, Federation University, University of Rajshahi, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Aix-Marseille Université, Centre d’Etudes et de Recherche sur les Services de Santé et la Qualité de Vie, Mahidol University, University of Sassari, Employees' State Insurance Model Hospital, Mansoura University, Siddhartha Medical College, Universidade Federal da Bahia, University of Gävle, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka, The University of Tokyo, Imperial College London, Public Health England, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Universidad de Antioquia, University of Warwick, Chulalongkorn University, Quest International University Perak, Georgetown University, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Near East University, University of Bergen, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Utkal University, National Taiwan University, SRM Medical College Hospital and Research Centre, Rainbow Babies & Children's Hospital, University of Belgrade, University of Cape Coast, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, West Bengal State Council of Technical Education, Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, University of Oxford, Kagawa University, Karnataka State Women's University, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Jawaharlal Institute of Post Graduate Medical Education and Research, Esan University, University of the Fraser Valley, KU Leuven, Swami Vivekanand Subharti University, National Institutes of Health, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Northwell Health, Usmanu Danfodiyo University, University of Oulu, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Anthropological Survey of India, University of Beira Interior, Universidade Politécnica da Guarda, Government Medical College and Hospital, United States Department of Veterans Affairs, Baylor College of Medicine, Hamad Medical Corporation, Xiamen University, Universitas Indonesia Maju, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Stellenbosch University, Sam Ratulangi University, University of South Australia, Debre Markos University, Kansai Medical University, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, University of Crete, University of Karachi, International Center for Chemical and Biological Sciences, University of Houston, King Abdullah International Medical Research Center, Kasturba Medical College, Manipal, Amity University Jaipur, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Bharathiar University, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Wollo University, King's College London, Michigan State University, Fred Hutch Cancer Center, Zhejiang University, ICMR National Institute for Research in Environmental Health, Zagazig University, Institut de Biologia Molecular de Barcelona, Kyung Hee University, Juntendo University, University of Toyama, James Madison University, University of Ha'il
Language: English
Subfield: Nutrition and Dietetics
Field: Nursing
Domain: Health Sciences
Open Access status: hybrid
Estimated APC paid: $6,680
Funders: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Yale University, Brown University, University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University, Universidade da Beira Interior, Johns Hopkins University, University of Montana, Wellcome Trust, UK Research and Innovation, Amarin Corporation, Horizon Pharmaceuticals, National Cerebral and Cardiovascular Center, Moderna, Seres Therapeutics, Government of Canada, Cardiff University, Australian Academy of Science, Department of Science and Technology, Ministry of Science and Technology, India, Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, AXA Research Fund, Korea University, Fondazione Cariplo, Ministero della Salute, Taipei Medical University, National Taiwan University, Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation, National Science and Technology Council, National Institutes of Health, Institute for Biospheric Studies, Yale University, Health Canada, Canadian Institutes of Health Research, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Precursory Research for Embryonic Science and Technology
OpenAlex ID: W4416930186