Work

PaB-PIF: A Hybrid Architecture to Evaluate Mutable and Immutable Blockchains in IoT–Fog Networks

Year: 2026

Type: article

Abstract: Blockchain provides secure and decentralized data storage. Normal blockchains permanently store data. Mutable blockchains allow users to change data, but this reduces tamper resistance. This paper tests both methods in PaB-PIF, a hybrid architecture for IoT-Fog networks. Our design uses an immutable mainchain in the cloud layer and mutable sidechains in the fog layer. We analyze throughput, latency, and tamper resistance using math models and simulations. Results show that blockchain greatly improves network security. Without blockchain, the network has zero tamper resistance. The mutable blockchain in the fog layer has a tamper resistance of 0.58. The immutable blockchain in the cloud layer reaches 0.99. However, this extra security increases latency and reduces throughput. The mutable blockchain has lower latency, so it is a good fit for the fog layer. The immutable blockchain provides maximum security, which is best for the cloud layer. This trade-off works well for IoT systems like the Internet of Vehicles, where data integrity and legal rules are essential. We also compare PaB-PIF with an IoT-Fog network that has no blockchain.

Source: Applied Sciences

DOI: 10.3390/app16178493

Authors: Marco Scarpa, Mohammad Sadeghzadeh, Saeed Javanmardi, Bahareh Pahlevanzadeh, Mauro Iacono

Institutions: University of Messina, Bu-Ali Sina University, Technological University Dublin, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"

Language: English

Topic: Blockchain Technology Applications and Security

Subfield: Information Systems

Field: Computer Science

Domain: Physical Sciences

SDG: Industry, innovation and infrastructure

Open Access status: gold

Estimated APC paid: $2,896