Work

Stratified support: shadow education and maths achievement in East Asia’s six top-performing jurisdictions

Year: 2025

Type: article

Abstract: We examine how shadow education is associated with educational inequality and mathematics achievement in six top-performing East Asian jurisdictions: Chinese Taipei, Hong Kong, Japan, Macao, Singapore, and South Korea. Using multilevel logistic and linear modelling on 2022 PISA data, we analyse the prevalence, socioeconomic stratification, and differential effects of five tutoring modes: one-to-one, internet/computer-based, asynchronous video instruction, small-group, and large-group tutoring. Access to traditional tutoring remains highly SES-dependent, whereas internet- or computer-based tutoring are the most democratised. Asynchronous video instruction appears particularly effective in Singapore, potentially due to high-quality English-language digital resources. Group-based tutoring is positively associated with mathematics in South Korea and Chinese Taipei, while one-to-one tutoring is generally linked to lower outcomes, suggesting a remedial role. We conclude that the role of shadow education modalities differs by jurisdiction. We discuss how shadow education reproduces inequality and recommend that future studies assess students’ use of AI for academic support.

Source: British Journal of Sociology of Education

DOI: 10.1080/01425692.2025.2596164

Authors: Alisher Tlessov, Matthew G. R. Courtney, George Leckie

Institutions: University of Bristol, Nazarbayev University

Language: English

Topic: Global Educational Reforms and Inequalities

Subfield: Demography

Field: Social Sciences

Domain: Social Sciences

SDGs: Quality education, Reduced inequalities

Open Access status: hybrid

Funder: University of Bristol